
Author 



Title 




Imprint. 



i- 



PRUSSIA 



AND THE 



GERMAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 




ARTHUR BOTT 



From the Transactions of the Albany Institute. 



ALBANY : 
JOEL MUNSELL 

1868. 




PRUSSIA 



GERMAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 



ARTHUR BOTT. 






Bead before the Albany Institute, February, 1867. 




ALBANY, N. Y. : 

JOEL MUNSELL 

1868. 



.QsB7 



y- 



PRUSSIA 



GERMAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 



The power which now speaks to Europe in the name of 
Germany, and which certainly bids fair to unite all Ger- 
man states under her sceptre, was unknown at the period 
of the Reformation. 

The counts of Hohenzollern descend from tributaries of 
Charlemagne. Their house long maintained a precarious 
existence as a fief of Poland. From the beginning, it 
clutched at every territory within its reach, swallowed up 
the smaller ones wherever found, near or far, and left to 
time the consolidation of the fragments into one organic 
body. If proprietors of intervening territory could not be 
subdued, they were cheated in barter or caught in the 
meshes of Venus. From the swamps of Brandenburg, 
hardly larger than an English county, the counts of 
Hohenzollern dotted western and northern Germany with 
these demesnes. The Julich and Cleve duchies lay 
leagues away from Brandenburg, as Brandenburg was far 
away from Stettin ; and none of them had any topograph- 
ical connection with eastern Prussia. All these acquisi- 
tions were rather the outposts of a projected kingdom 
than vital members of one political body. In every 
European treaty Prussia secured some new dominion. 
Early in the eighteenth century Austria permitted her to 
1 



assume a royal dignity. This was the crisis of her history. 
The sword of Frederic, by incorporating Silesia and 
Posen, raised her from a feudatory of Austria, to a power- 
ful rival ; and while the latter still hugged the rude old 
feudal system, Prussia, by employing every new, wise 
principle of national progress, obtained the commercial, 
and through this, the political control of all Germany. 
In her enlightened system of public education, her com- 
mercial codes based on strict reciprocity ; by political 
representation and the widest religious freedom; she 
presents, beside the neighboring despotism, all the con- 
trast of science with ignorance, of integrity with corrup- 
tion, of light with darkness. 

In her political alliances, Prussia has one principle — 
that of a selfish expediency. She accepts the hand of 
either belligerent, like a partner in a dance. She has 
kidnapped the states which she could not honorably 
annex, as Frederic kidnapped recruits for his giant regi- 
ment. She has trampled on every principle of interna- 
tional law and perpetrated every crime necessary to her 
ends. She instigated and mainly procured the dismem- 
berment of Poland. Her own original fief was torn from 
the knights whose interests she had sworn, as chief and 
guardian, to defend. Two of the most important mem- 
bers of the empire were seized by acts of buccaneering 
unsurpassed in the history of nations. While accepting 
British money to despatch troops to Austerlitz, she. was 
negotiating with JSTapoleon for British Hanover as the 
price of neutrality. She pledged herself to Napoleon to 
guard the rear of his Russian army and then fulfilled the 
pledge by turning thirty thousand bayonets against his 
frozen, perishing fugitives. Treacherous to the last, she 
made a tool of Austria to subdue Schleswig-Holstein and 
tfyen seized the whole prize, kicked Austria out of doors, 
and ground the whole confederation to dust. 



But she has characteristics which might redeem her 
rapacity. Her kings and electors have been frugal, 
even to parsimony, in their households — not for family 
aggrandizement but to lighten the public burdens and to 
create an efficient civil and military department. They 
have melted their plate, slept on hard beds, dressed in 
frieze, eaten peasant's food, to keep the national expenses 
within the receipts. William I. sold his jewels, sent his 
spoons to the mint, abolished the costly court ceremonies, 
even dismissed the wig-maker and barber, in order to 
establish a school for the army. As a consequence, 
Prussia shows, up to this day, the cleanest yearly balance 
sheet of Europe. "While other nations become insolvent 
in peace, Prussia clears off her debts even in time of war. 
New states are made to pay the expenses of their own 
annexation. The sinking fund will remove the present 
indebtedness within twelve j^ears. This personal interest 
thus extended to the people by their rulers gives a peculiar 
•freedom to the life of the latter ; absolute in its social and 
religious elements and yet modified by the sovereign's 
paternal care. A Jew may guide the Prussian parliament, 
a Roman Catholic may mount the throne. To every child 
in the land, of either sex, however remote or however 
poor, the government furnishes freely seven years of sound, 
generous education. The Prussian people thus enjoy all 
the splendid advantages of a great empire with the finan- 
cial ease and social and religious liberty of a petty state. 
Although the countries which she has violently seized, 
struggled at first like the Sabine women, they now seem 
only to desire the closest intimacy with their captors. 
Certainly they have gained much and lost little by their 
change of masters. 



Administration of Public Instruction. 

The administration of Schools was centralized only 
in the present century, by transferring it to the Ministry 
of the Interior. Here it was placed under the imme- 
diate direction of "William Humboldt, as State Councillor. 
Since 1817, Educational and Ecclesiastical matters have 
formed a special Ministerial department. 

Under this Central Department, stand eight Provincial 
Administrations, which recognize local and sectarian pe- 
culiarities. In each Province, a Deputation regulates all 
the internal affairs of church and school ; determining the 
general object of the educational institutions ; examining 
their statutes and discipline ; proposing plans of improve- 
ment and designating text-books ; supervising the higher 
schools and appointing or removing teachers. The pro- 
vincial boards manage the property of church and school 
and regulate the elementary and primary departments of 
the latter, and report to the Minister six commissions, 
distinct from these Boards, examine teachers for the 
higher schools, and revise the examinations for graduation. 
Each commission has seven members ; one for each of the 
following branches — Philology, History, Mathematics and 
Physics, Science of Teaching, Theology, and Hebrew, 
Natural Sciences, Modern Languages. 

By the Prussian constitution, all schools and universities 
are declared Institutions of the State ; they cannot be 
established without the consent of the state and are 
subject to its supervision ; they are open to all sects but 
persons dissenting from their religious system are not re- 
quired to attend the religious instruction ; schools and 
Gymnasia for the higher sciences and the arts and trades, 
enjoy the same powers as corporations and are controlled 
immediately by the state authorities ; teachers not appointed 
by persons or corporations, through legacy or special 



privilege, are appointed by the state ; schools conducted 
by private persons or corporations are subject to super- 
vision of the Provincial Boards, as to their teachers and dis- 
cipline and instruction. Also, the supervisors must dissuade 
persons evidently incompetent, from entering the learned 
professions ; they must encourage and aid youth of superior 
talent ; no dismissal can take place, without a testimonial 
of mental and moral character. The mode of education 
of the child is left to the father's choice, but the necessary 
instruction in religion and useful knowledge according to 
his position must be imparted. Any person may instruct, 
after authorization by the state. Teachers of the Gymnasia 
and other higher schools are declared officers of the state. 

In Germany, education is compulsory on both sexes, for 
seven years from the child's sixth or seventh year. This 
education is merely elementary. The state, however, is 
obliged to prepare the indvidual for his future vocation. 

In the large cities, free schools especially for the poorer 
classes are maintained by the municipality aided by the 
state ; all teachers are appointed by the government and 
the municipality jointly, and the schools are supported by 
the latter. 

In 1857, Prussia contained 27,963 elementary schools 
with over 30,000 teachers and 2,859,694 scholars ; and 
1,171 private schools, with 3,635 teachers and 83,021 
scholars; leaving about 11,000 non-attendants. In France, 
at the same time, nearly one-third of the children of proper 
age were non-attendants and another third attended school 
during a few months of the year only. 

Prussia has long paid special attention to its Normal 
system. It honors teaching as a regular profession. The 
teacher consequently loves his calling with enthusiasm. 
In the higher schools of the cities, he associates with the 
elite. In the elementary and the village schools, he and 
the pastor are the gentlemen of the place. He considers 



6 

himself not as laboring for a livelihood but as shaping the 
destinies of his nation. He retains his position, generally 
during life, growing old among his own pupils, whose 
reverent affection breathes over his declining years an 
idyllic charm. 

The Normal Seminaries contain 39 protestant and 16 
catholic instructors with 2,600 students. Before entering, 
the student must pass examination in the three lower 
branches of the Gymnasium, at least. The course lasts 
three years and embraces all the branches of the common 
school course, but especially the science of education and 
catechetics. The instruction is practical ; the pupils ap- 
plying daily their principles, under the supervision of the 
professors, in instructing the pupils of the schools con- 
nected with the seminary. At graduation, they pass a 
rigid examination pro facilitate docendi, and enter the service 
of the state according to their several qualifications. 

The examination pro facilitate docendi comprises G-erman 
Latin, Greek, French and Hebrew ; mathematics, physics, 
natural history ; history and geography, antiquities, 
mythology, history of Greek and Roman literature ; 
philosophy and theology. It is conducted before the 
royal commission, is both oral and written, and includes a 
trial-lesson in one of the higher classes of the Gymnasium. 
Lately, a trial year has been introduced, to secure fuller 
proficiency. 

There are a few seminaries for the preparation of 
teachers for the higher schools. Their course follows that 
of the University and presumes a previous complete 
scientific education, and a degree pro facilitate docendi. 
They are connected more or less closely with the University 
and seek less to teach the art of teaching than to produce 
independent application and development of science. A 
Philological seminary is connected with every university. 
Philosophical, historical or mathematical seminaries are 



rare. Students stay two years, rarely four. They com- 
pose educational and scientific treatises, and criticise them 
in special conferences. They take classes in the Gymnasia 
or study the methods of certain teachers and practice un- 
der them. 

The Grammar schools are exclusively designed to pre- 
pare the sons of citizens for the pursuits of common life. 
Admission takes place at the ninth year, and presumes 
facility in reading German and Roman print, knowledge 
of the parts of speech, a readable and clear hand-writing, 
fair spelling, knowledge of the four fundamental rules of 
Arithmetic and acquaintance with the narratives of the 
old and the new Testament. After six years, the pupil is 
expected to write good German, to translate correctly 
from other tongues, to understand thoroughly the Latin 
grammar, and read well Cesar and Ovid ; to pronounce 
correctly English and French and write them freely from 
dictation ; to know the outlines of general history, the 
most important events of Greek and Roman history, and 
especially that of Germany and Prussia since the Thirty 
years war. He must be acquainted with the most import- 
ant conditions of the earth's surface, with the topical and 
political geography of Europe and especially with that of 
Germany and Prussia; with the elements of Mathematical 
Geography, the chief botanical, zoological and mineralo- 
gical systems, the physiology and anatomy of the plants 
and animals especially valuable in commerce and the arts, 
the general properties of bodies, the laws of heat, the 
elements of Chemistry, Geometry, Stereometry, Plane 
Trigonometry, Equations, Logarithms, and Progressions. 

There are countries in Germany in which the school 
system is even more rigidly enforced than in Prussia. 
Wurtemberg, for instance, with its University, its primary 
schools established in every hamlet, its compulsory educa- 
tion of children from the 6th to 14th year, has given 



birth to a greater number of scholars and literary men 
than any other land; among them. Schiller Wieland, 
TThland, Schubart, Kerner, Knapp, Schelling and Hegel. 

The Schools of Industry and Arts (Real Schulen), are 
public institutions in which especial attention is paid to 
instruction in natural sciences and mathematics, and which 
prepare their pupils for practical life. They treat ancient 
languages as secondary and give to the natural sciences, 
geography, chemistry, history, technology, mathematics 
and modern languages the first rank. They dismiss their 
pupils to the military, postal, forest and architectural 
schools and services, and to all professions for which a 
University education is not required. There are 83 real 
schools with 1,037 teachers. 

The following is the plan of study and number of hours 
per day allotted to each branch. 



Religion, Hours per Week, 

German, " 

Latin, " 

French, " 

English, " 

Geography and history, ... " 

Natural sciences, " 

Geometry and arithmetic, " 

Penmanship, " 

Drawing:, " 



CLASSES. 



30 



31 



32 



32 



32 



32 



Before leaving the school, the pupil must pass a thorough 
examination, both oral and written ; the latter consisting 
of a G-erman, French and English composition, a transla- 
tion into the Latin, the solving of two arithmetical and 
two geometrical problems and a treatise on some theme 
in Natural Philosophy and on another in Chemistry; the 



9 

oral examination testing his acquirements in religion, 
history, geography, mathematics and the natural sciences. 
In the German language, the student must be able to 
work out a theme in logical' order and in correct, good 
language. He must also speak the language correctly and 
fluently, and must be acquainted with the principal periods 
of German literature. In Latin, he must be able to 
translate into good German, portions of Csesar, Sallust, 
Livy, Ovid and Virgil, read before. In French and 
English he must possess a thorough knowledge of 
grammar and be able to write an exercise and a dictation 
from the German without strong Germanism or gramma- 
tical mistakes. He must also converse with some facility 
in these languages and have some acquaintance with their 
literature. He must have a systematic knowledge of 
universal history and general chronology. In natural 
philosophy he must know its laws and fundamental 
ideas, as well as the methods of experiment ; the laws of 
gravitation and motion ; the principles of heat, electricity, 
magnetism, sound and light. In chemistry and orycto- 
gnosy is required a knowledge, based upon experiments, of 
the affinities of the more common inorganic and organic 
substances. The student must be able to describe and to 
employ the best processes for the more common chemical 
products and also to state the nature and uses of the latter. 
He must exercise a scientific knowledge of the whole field 
of mathematics, as algebra, proportions, equations, 
progression, binomial theorems, logarithms, plane trigo- 
nometry, stereometry, descriptive and analytic geometry, 
conic sections, statics, and mechanics. 

The Polytechnic Schools prepare their pupils by 
scientific instruction for the arts and technical 'profes- 
sions. They differ from the common schools of art or 
industry in that they enter more systematically into the 
technical sciences, and presuppose a complete course of 
2 



10 

the mathematical and natural sciences. They differ from 
other schools of learning in their manifold relations to 
industrial life ; they treat their subjects no less scientifically 
but at the same time furnish opportunities for practical 
applications. The instruction comprises a three-years 
course after the manner of academies or universities ; 
the pupil selecting his own branches. This course is 
divided into two parts ; the first being the technical, 
teaching the lower and higher branches of mathematics, 
physics and mechanism, general chemistry, machinery 
and drawing. This section is subdivided into three 
faculties for engineering, machine-building and technical 
chemistry. The students in the first, study also, the 
higher sciences of surveying, hydraulics, road and rail- 
road architecture, and construct plans ; those of the second 
are instructed in mechanism, machine-building and mecha- 
nical technology, and the planning of single machines and 
whole factories ; and those of the third, study physics, 
theoretical and analytical chemistry and chemical 
technology and practice chemical analyses and prepara- 
tions. Some branches of jurisprudence and political 
economy, as well as modern languages, being of equal 
importance to all the faculties, are taught in them all. 
The second section is the commercial and comprise the 
instruction in mercantile correspondence, in commercial 
sciences, commercial laws and laws of exchange, in mer- 
cantile calculations and book-keeping, in commercial 
geography and history and modern languages. At the 
end of each term, an examination is held and testimonials 
are given according to its result. 

Germany possesses 24 schools for architecture, 12 for 
mining, 17 for forestry (arboriculture etc.), 31 for com- 
merce, 46 military schools, 70 for agriculture, 10 for 
music, 81 naval schools, 12 veterinary schools, 12 surgical, 
64 for various other sciences. 



11 



The Universities of G-ermany. 

Universities were first founded in Germany in the 13th 
century. They were modeled after the high schools of the 
Arabs in Bagdad, Cordova, Salamanca, Seville, Toledo, 
and Alexandria. The studies were grammar, poetry, 
philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, mathematics and 
practical sciences. 

The Universities are the pride and glory of Germany. 
They exert more influence there than similar institutions 
in any other country. They are the centres of the higher 
intellectual and literary life of the nation and the labora- 
tories of new theories of action. They reflect a picture ; 
the whole world of nature and of mind under its ideal 
form. They develop the talents and form the principles 
of nearly all who fill the places of power in church and 
state, from the village pastor to the oberconsistorialrath, 
from the advocate at the bar to the head of the cabinet. 

They receive the best minds from the lowest as well as 
the highest ranks and fit them for public usefulness. 

From them, emanate principally the ideas and maxims 
whether conservative or progressive which rule the land. 

It is characteristic that the Reformation in Germany, 
proceeded, not from princes and bishops as in England, but 
from theological professors. 

The great philosophical and theological revolution of the 
last century and the counter revolution of the present 
century, have likewise proceeded mainly from the studies 
and lecture rooms of the academic teachers. 

Such supremacy of literary institutions and literary men 
has, however, its disadvantages. It could not exist in a 
country like ours or England, where politics and commerce 
engage so large a proportion of the best talent and energy 
of the nation. But in Germany, it is closely connected 
with the genius, history and condition of the people, and 



12 

no one can form a correct idea of the nation's higher and 
deeper life without a knowledge of its universities. 

Each nation has its peculiar mission and excellency. 
Ancient Israel was elected to prepare the true religion 
for the world ; Greece to develop the principles of science 
and art ; Rome to actualize the idea of law and civil 
government. So in our times, the chief significance of 
Germany lies neither in politics nor in war nor in commerce, 
but in science and literature. The German universities 
exert also a powerful influence Upon other countries. 

Situated in the heart of Europe and visited by strangers 
from all quarters of the globe, they are the strongholds of 
general learning and literature and of the highest culture 
of Europe and America. 

Twenty six Universities exist in the entire German 
confederation. Of these, six belong to the kingdom of 
Prussia (at Berlin, Halle, Bonn, Breslaw, Konigsberg, 
Greisswalde, to which may be added the Roman Catholic 
High School of Munster ) ; six to the Empire of Austria' 
(Vienna, Prague, Olmutz, Gratz, Salzburg, Innsbruck) ; 
three to the kingdom of Bavaria (Munich, Erlangen, 
Wurzburg) ; two to the grand Duchy of Baden (Heidelberg 
and Freiburg) ; one to the kingdom of "Wurtemberg 
(Tubingen) ; one to the kingdom of Saxony (Leipsic). 

Eight are Roman Catholic, thirteen Protestant, five of 
both creeds. 

These institutions are maintained by princely or by 
private donations, by tithes and by annual appropriations 
of the government. The popes frequently transferred to 
them the proceeds of a part of the church property. At 
the Reformation, the wealth of the secularized abbeys and 
since 1773, that of the order of Jesuits have been largely 
devoted to them. They are also generally exempt from 
taxation and enjoy certain temporal privileges. Tuition 
forms the least source of income. The students pay besides 



13 



the matriculation fee, a certain sum (f 2 to $10) for each 
course of lectures ; but the chief resource of the professors 
is a fixed salary paid by the state, ranging from a few 
hundred to several thousand dollars, according to age, 
merit and reputation. 

The university is divided into four faculties. Each 
faculty elects annually from itself, its own dean. At the 
head of the whole academic body, stands the rector or 
chancellor, likewise chosen annually from the regular 
professors of each faculty in its turn. The legislative 
power resides in the academic senate, composed of all the 
ordinary professors or a delegated number. A university 
is thus a complete republic of letters, highly independent of 
church and state, although furnishing to both, all their 
higher officers. This academic liberty, both intellectual 
and moral, the utmost liberty to teach and to learn, is 
cherished as one of the most precious privileges. 

The four faculties embrace all the sacred and the 
secular sciences and make up the idea of a university ; a 
term which was first applied to the body of teachers and 
pupils (universitas scholarium), but is now understood 
mainly of the totality of letters (universitas literarum), 
and the completeness of the system of instruction. 

We now proceed to a separate notice of the four profes- 
sional schools which form a German University : 

1st. The theological faculty still has the supremacy, 
since, when most of the universities were founded theology 
was emphatically the queen of sciences. The great insti- 
tution at Paris was at first simply a theological and 
philosophical school ; the philosophical studies served as a 
preparation to scholastic divinity, and the philosophical 
professors were all ecclesiatics. 

In the middle ages, theology was confined to the inter- 
pretation of the Latin Bible on the basis of the Catense- 
Patrum and to scholastic dogmatics and ethics, under the 



14 

guidance of the Sentences of Peter the Lombard, called 
the "Magister Sententiarum." In modern times, the 
field has been greatly enlarged by the addition of Oriental 
philology, biblical criticism, hermeneutics, antiquities, 
church history and doctrinal history, homiletics, cate- 
chetics, liturgies, pastoral theology and theory of church 
government. No theological faculty is now considered 
complete without separate professors for the exegetical, 
historical, systematic and practical branches of divinity. 
Professors may lecture however, in any department, if not 
neglecting their immediate duties, Schleiermacher, for 
instance, taught in turn almost every branch of theology 
and philosophy. 

2d. The Philosophical faculty is by far the most nume- 
rous in its teachers and departments ; and besides 
philosophy proper, it embraces history, ancient and modern 
languages, mathematics, belles lettres. It was formerly 
called the faculty of Arts (facultas artium liberalium,) 
whence the terms, Bachelor and Master of Arts. 

In the middle ages, all human sciences, as distinct from 
theology, were divided into seven artes liberales, viz., 
grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, music, geometry 
and astronomy. 

The first three constituted the Trivium ; the remaining 
four the Quadrivium. The principal text-books in these 
departments were the dialectical, ethical and physical 
works of Aristotle, until the Reformation and the philo- 
sophy of Bacon and Cartesius deposed the great Stagyrite 
from his long reign. Since that time, although the 
historical, philological and natural sciences have made 
immense progress, the faculties have not kept pace with 
them, in their reorganization. 

The Philosophical study, properly so called, includes 
logic, metaphysics, philosophy of nature, anthropology 
and psychology, philosophy of law or political ethics, 



15 

philosophy of history, philosophy of art or aesthetics, 
moral philosophy, philosophy of religion, and history of 
philosophy. 

3d. The faculty of Law (facultas juris canoniciet civilis) 
embraces a greater variety of studies (especially the history 
of civil, criminal, and common law, the exposition of the 
ancient Roman Code, and the canon law) than our own 
law schools. But on the other hand, these latter, with 
the many opportunities for public speaking and our 
republican institutions, produce stronger advocates and 
more practical statesmen. The German law-schools were 
modeled after the oldest in the world, that of Bologna. 

4. The faculty of Medicine comprehends chemistry, 
physiology, anatomy, phrenology, pathology and similar 
sciences, which are taught also in all our regular medical 
colleges. 

The universities of Berlin and Vienna, enjoy the great- 
est medical reputation. 

The system of academical degrees originated likewise 
in the middle ages. In Germany, the lower degrees have 
disappeared except for divinity, but the doctorship remains 
for each faculty. This may be acquired after the com- 
pletion of the prescribed course, by a special examination, 
printed dissertation or book and public disputation con- 
ducted in Latin ; ail involving considerable expense. The 
diploma of Doctor of Philosophy, however, which 
corresponds somewhat to our Master of Arts, and also that 
of Doctor of Medicine, can be more easily secured ; at 
least, from several smaller universities. Some years ago, 
complaint was entered at the Diet of Frankfort against 
the traffic in the lower diplomas which brought them into 
disrepute ; and the lesser, states were compelled to check 
it. The Prussian universities demand very scrupulously a 
rigorous examination and public disputation, and never 
waste a degree honoris causa. 



16 

In theology, there are still two degrees, that of the 
Licentiate (corresponding to the English Bachelor of 
Divinity), which confers the right of public teaching in 
the university, and that of D. D. The latter is the highest 
academic honor and hence much rarer than the doctor's 
diploma of any other faculty. It may be acquired by the 
regular process of a written wOrk and Latin debate, in 
which every member of the university can attack the 
published theses of the candidate ; but it is now generally 
given honoris causa, as an acknowledgment of dis- 
tinguished literary merit, or of eminent usefulness in the 
church. 

The Gymnasia, unlike the colleges of England and 
America, confer no degrees. 

There are three classes of teachers in the universities. 

1st. The ordinary professors ; who are regular members 
of the faculty and receive a full support from the state 
independently of the proceeds of their lectures and can be 
elected to the academical senate and the rectorship. 

2d. The extraordinary professors ; who have no seat in 
the faculty nor in the senate, and have a smaller income 
but are generally promoted to a vacant regular professor- 
ship. 

3d. The private lecturers (privatim docentes) ; who have 
passed through the examen rigorosum and deliver lectures 
like the regular professors but are without appointment 
and generally receive no salary from the state. They de- 
pend therefore, upon the fees for lectures or private 
tuition or extra literary labor. Unless they have means of 
their own or eminent popular talents which attract crowds 
and secure sometimes a special appropriation from the 
minister, they drag out a very weary existence. 

Most of the professors must pass through these stages 
before reaching the honor and benefits of a regular or 
ordinary professorship. Some few distinguished men, 



17 

however, are called directly, from the ranks of the ministry 
or of the law or medicine. 

The number of teachers varies from thirty to a hundred 
and fifty or even more. At Berlin, there are 186 professors 
for 2435 students ; at Vienna, 181 professors for 4608 
students ; at Munich, 119 for 1213 students ; at Gottingen 
144 for 711 students ; at Leipsic 112 for 1007 students ; at 
Heidelberg, 98 for 850 students; at Bonn, 98 for 935 
students ; at Breslaw, 101 for 946 students. 

One of the most important characteria tics of the German 
university is the professorial or lecture system as distinct 
from the English tutorial system. Instead of a number of 
colleges, as in Oxford and Cambridge, where the students 
live together under moral supervision, one large building 
with a number of halls (Horsaal) receives them during a 
part of the day for the lectures, as they may choose to 
attend. Attendance is left to their own sense of duty. 
The studious and conscientious frequent four or five 
lectures daily. When the clock strikes, they take their 
seats in the Horsaal, unfold their portfolios and strike the 
ink-horn (armed below with a sharp iron spike) into the 
wooden desk, waiting for the learned oracle. After an 
intermission of ten or fifteen minutes, the professor ascends 
the rostrum and with the familiar address, "Meine Herren," 
begins his lecture standing or sitting, reading or extem- 
porizing or both alternately. Some of the hearers take 
down in short-hand every word that drops from the mouth 
of living wisdom. Others show their contempt for goose- 
quill learning by merely listening or noting the general 
heads. 

The most judicious appropriate the lecture to their 
mind as it goes on, and reproduce it in a condensed form. 
If the professor speaks indistinctly, some give him a hint 
with a motion of their feet, to repeat the sentence. But 
not all professors pay attention to this linguam pedestrem. 
3 



18 

Each lecture lasts about three quarters of an hour till the 
clock gives its accustomed sound, when the professor folds 
his manuscript, the students wipe their pens, shut the 
ink horn, take hat or cap and portfolio and crowd to the 
door, to return to their lodgings or to attend another lecture 
or to walk the hospitals or enter the laboratories. 

This is generally all the instruction imparted in these 
* institutions. In Berlin and Halle, however, meetings 
(Seminare) are held in the professors' houses for the dis- 
cussion of Biblical, and patriotic or of classical authors and 
for the composition of Latin prize essays. 

Thus Neander used to read in this familiar way 
Tertullian's Apolegeticus, Origen's Commentaries and 
De Principiis, Augustine's Confessions, Chrysostom De 
Sacerdotio, etc. ' These meetings are conducted in Latin. 
In Tubingen, the lecture-system is accompanied by weekly 
recitations and examinations conducted by the repententen, 
who may be compared to the tutors or teaching-fellows 
of British universities. 

Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the lectures 
were all delivered in Latin : a method which was very in- 
jurious to the cultivation of the German language. The 
scholars of the seventeenth century wrote and spoke the 
classical or the scholastic Latin better than their mother 
tongue. It was the merit of Thoniasius, professor in 
Halle, that he began the gradual abolition of this ped- 
antry, and introduced the national language ; at present 
very few lectures are delivered in Latin, while this 
language is still used very properly in academic disserta- 
tions, the conferring of degrees and other public solemni- 
ties. 

It is easy to see that the lecture system has great advan- 
tages both for the professor and the student. The task of 
writing one or more learned lectures every day, at least 
early in the professorial career, draws out all the powers 



19 

and produces that high scholarship and marvellous literary 
fertility in which Protestant Germany surpasses all other 
countries, and by which it furnishes • to England and 
America, directly or indirectly, most of their classical and 
scientific text books. To the student, this system is gene- 
rally the most impressive. When a science comes clothed 
in flesh and blood from the mind and lips of the professor 
like Minerva from the head of Jove, it inspires the hearer 
with a consciousness of the creative power slumbering 
within himself and fires it into action. And the habit of 
writing, pursued by the student, accompanied by thought 
is generally the best method of mental appropriation and 
digestion. But on the other hand, it must be admitted 
that the German universities promote an excessive indi- 
viduality of intellect and fertility of opinions; an extreme 
opposite to the stagnate steadiness, uniformity and tradition- 
alism of Oxford and Cambridge. If the government allow 
too little political liberty, the universities allow too great 
intellectual and doctrinal liberty. With a vast amount of 
invaluable learning and useful systems they have brought 
forth also many fantastic, absurd and. revolutionary 
theories. 

They have been the hot houses of rationalism, skepticism 
and pantheism, and all sorts of dangerous innovations. 

A model university, while affording the widest cultivation 
of all sciences, should never lose the great aim of benefiting 
society and of training the rising intellect for practical 
usefulness in church and state. It should reconcile the 
claims of authority and of freedom and guard the unity and 
harmony of truth as well as the diversity and universality 
of science. The lecture system can and should be 
combined with the recitation system — thus ascertaining 
the student's progress, explaining the subject fully and 
supplying the peculiar needs of each young mind for its 
future career in life. 



20 



^ The German universities maintain the principle of 
universal admission both for those who wish to teach and 
for those who wish to learn, on the sole condition of 
intellectual capacity. There are no sectarian or religious 
disabilities, as at Oxford and Cambridge, except for the 
professorship of the theological faculty. Thus you find 
amongthe students Lutherans, Reformed, Roman Catholics, 
Greeks and even Jews, and many foreigners from all 
countries of Europe and America. Here they enter an 
unlimited field of independent study, where they may for 
four or more years conduct their education and acquire, on 
examination, an academic degree. 

The students have generally passed their eighteenth or 
twentieth year when they leave the dull routine of the 
gymnasium. Their sojourn in the university is an era of 
perfect intellectual freedom, such as they never enjoy in 
subsequent life. They choose their profession, their 
professors and the lectures ; they may attend them with 
scrupulous regularity or waste their precious time in 
idleness and dissipation. They are supposed to possess 
full intellectual and moral maturity except in politics. 
The only compulsion to study are the examinations 
requisite for the Doctor's diploma or for the active service 
of church and state. But the strongest stimulus is sup- 
posed to be an enthusiasm for science and the highest 
culture. 

The universities are not training schools, like the 
gymnasia and our American colleges, but they represent 
the unity and universality of scientific knowledge, the 
field for the presentation and dissemination of truth ; and 
they afford unlimited opportunity for original study and self 
development. To many a youth, this academical freedom 
proves disastrous ; but the German student is proverbial 
for his plodding disposition and his unwearying toil. It 
must be confessed that drinking, duelling (although the 



21 

latter is strictly prohibited) and other lawless and vulgar 
habits still disgrace several of these .learned institutions, 
especially in smaller towns, as Jena and Geissen, where 
the students hold the citizens or " Philistines," under 
their control. But with proper allowance for national 
genius and taste, German students lose nothing by com- 
parison with those of Oxford and Cambridge, while in 
industry they generally surpass them. 

"A German student," says a recent English writer, 
" does not feather his oar in a university boat or regatta 
day ; he does not kick the foot-ball on Parker's piece ; he 
does not skilfully take the balls at a cricket match. 

" These gentle pastimes would not satisfy his bolder and 
noisier disposition. His thoughts are more excitable and 
somewhat enthusiastic. His manners are more cordial 
and unreserved. His appearance and demeanor are less 
aristocratic. Yet he is well-bred, spirited and high- 
minded ; he is frank and open ; a faithful friend and an 
eccentric lover of his Fatherland. He is a sworn enemy 
to all falsehood and all deceit. Peculiar notions of honor 
and a deep love of independence and liberty belong to his 
most deep-rooted principles. Song and music, social 
parties, convivial fetes, a martial, undaunted spirit, and 
excitement of the patriotic feelings throw over his life an 
enchantment which gilds it yet in all his later recollections." 

The students live not in one building, as is generally 
the case in our colleges, but are scattered through the 
town. They spend from two to five hours every day in 
the lecture rooms and the rest of the time in reading 
and writing at home or in intercourse with their fellow 
students. The majority, especially the "foxes," as the 
fresh-men are called, join the social clubs, the members of 
which generally wear or used to wear peculiar colors on 
their caps, flags, and breast-bands, and meet on special 
days at a particular inn or private room. At their meet- 



ings, they discuss their professors and sweethearts, arrange 
a serenade to a favorite teacher or a practical joke upon 
some sordid landlord or "philister;" they apostrophize 
Fatherland in patriotic speeches, pour out their hearts in a 
noisy flow of jolly good-fellowship, with pathos and pipes, 
lampoons and lager, sarcasm and sausages, shouts of 
laughter and song till midnight ; like the uproarious 
crew in Auerbach's cellar. It must not be supposed, 
however, that all share in this boisterous mirth. The 
steady fellows live in almost ascetic retirement or seek 
friends of strict moral and literary habits. 

" Providence has given to the French the empire of the 
land, to the English that of the sea, to the Germans that 
of the air. By this famous saying, Jean Paul, himself 
a denizen of the air, proclaimed the strength as well as 
the weakness of his native country ; and those critics who 
in good or ill humor quote it to the disparagement of the 
Germans, seem to forget that the air is the habitation of 
the warbling nightingale and the soaring eagle, and is as 
necessary and useful to man as are the land and the sea ; 
and situated as Germany is, in the heart of Europe, she fur- 
nishes the heart's blood, the ideas and principles of modern 
history and holds the intellectual mastery of the world." 

As in times past, she produced the printing-press and 
the Reformation, the two levers of modern civilization and 
Christianity, so she reigns at the present day in every 
department of science and art, and these are, after all, next 
to virtue and religion, the noblest pursuits and the highest 
ornaments of immortal man. 

In concluding this topic, permit me to say a few words 
on the transfer of German institutions of learning to 
American soil. What we need is : 

1st. The obligatory education. 

2d. More discipline in our schools. 

3d. A thorough system of education in all branches. 



23 

It needs no argument to show that our college system is 
incomplete and that we need institutions of the first order, 
deserving the name of University in the full and proper 
sense of the term. The day is not distant when this great 
country will equal any on the globe in every branch of 
education. 

As regards the organization of these future universities, 
however, we would by no means advocate a slavish copy 
of the German institutions, but such an adaptation of 
their features to the peculiar genius of our country, as 
will make them truly American and a real educational 
advance upon the old. It has been proposed already to 
establish such an institution in the city of New York ; 
and it seems to me that we need at least one in every 
state and territory, to which the colleges will be preparatory 
like the German gymnasia. These universities ought to 
be planned on the largest scale, liberally endowed by the 
states and accessible to all. In these, our national system 
of education, which has so rapidly advanced of late, would 
find its necessary and natural completion. If the legislatures 
neglect this duty, the leading churches or private indi- 
viduals should assume it. Such a movement would be 
more consistent with our national genius and would infuse 
a religious spirit into the institutions, without which they 
cannot permanently flourish and promote the highest 
interest of society. 






24 



A Course of Instruction. 

1. Primary Schools. 

The general outline of the eight years' course is nearly 
as follows : 

I. First part, of two years, including children from six 
to eight years old ; four principal branches, namely : 

1. Logical exercises, or oral teaching in the exercise of 
the powers of observation and expression, including reli- 
gious instruction and the singing of hymns. 

2. Elements of reading. 

3. Elements of writing. 

4. Elements of number, or arithmetic. 

II. Second part, of two years, including children from 
eight to ten years old — seven principal branches, namely: 

1. Exercises in reading. 

2. Exercises in writing. 

3. Religious and moral instruction, in select Bible 
narratives. 

4. Language, or grammar. 

5. Numbers, or arithmetic. 

6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry. 

7. Singing by note, or elements of music. 

III. Third part, of two years, including children from 
ten to twelve years old — eight principal branches, namely : 

1. Exercises in reading and elocution. 

2. Exercises in ornamental writing, preparatory to 
drawing. 

3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history. 

4. Language, or grammar, with parsing. 



25 

5. Real instruction, or knowledge of nature and the 
external worJd, including the first elements of the sciences 
and the arts of life — of geography and history. 

6. Arithmetic continued through fractions and the rules 
of proportion. 

7. Geometry — doctrine of magnitudes and measures. 

8. Singing and science of vocal and instrumental music. 

IV. Fourth part, of two years, including children from 
ten to twelve years old — six principal branches, namely : 

1. Religious instruction in the religious observation of 
nature ; the life and discourses of Jesus Christ ; the his- 
tory of the Christian religion, in connection with the 
contemporary civil history; and the doctrines of Christ- 
ianity. 

2. Knowledge of the world, and of mankind, including 
civil society, elements of law, agriculture, mechanic arts, 
manufactures, etc. 

3. Language, and exercises in composition. 

4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to 
the business of life, including surveying and civil engineer- 
ing. 

5. Elements of drawing. 

6. Exercises in singing, and the science of music. 

V. Fifth part, of two years — children from twelve 
to fourteen. 

1. Religious instruction, in the religious observation of 
nature, the life and discourses of Jesus Christ, the history 
of the Christian religion, in connection with the cotem- 
porary civil history, and the principal doctrines of the 
Christian system. 

The first topic of instruction mentioned under this head 
is one of peculiar interest and utility. The pupils are 
taught to observe, with care and system, the various 



26 

powers and operations of nature, and to consider them as 
so many illustrations of the wisdom, power, and goodness 
of the Creator; and at each lesson they are directed to some 
appropriate passage of the Bible, which they read and 
commit to memory : and thus the idea is continually im- 
pressed on them, that the God of nature and the God of 
the Bible are one and the same Being. 

For example, as introductory to the whole study, the 
first chapter of Genesis, together with some other appro- 
priate passage of Scripture, as the 147th Psalm, or the 38th 
chapter of Job, may be read and committed to memory. 

The surface of the earth, as illustrating the power and 
wisdom of God, may be taken as a lesson. 

Then the varieties of surface, as mountains, valleys, 
oceans and rivers, continents and islands, the height of 
mountains, the breadth of oceans, the length of rivers, 
remarkable cataracts, extended caverns, volcanoes, tides, 
etc., may be taken into view, and the teacher may impress 
upon the class the greatness, power, and intelligence neces- 
sary for such a creation. The whole is fortified by the 
application of such a passage as Psalm civ, 1-13. 

" Bless the Lord, my soul ! Lord my God ! thou art very 
great; thou art clothed with honor and majesty. Who coverest thy- 
self with light as with a garment: who stretchiest out the heavens like 
a curtain : who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters : who 
maketh the clouds his chariot : who walketh upon the wings of the 
wind : who maketh his angels spirits ; his ministers a flaming fire. 
Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed 
forever. Thou coverest it with the deep as with a garment : the 
waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled ; at 
the voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the 
mountains ; they go down by the valleys into the place which thou 
hast founded for them. Thou hast set a bound that they may not 
pass over ; that they turn not again to cover the earth. He sendeth 
the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They give 
drink to every beast of the field; the wild asses quench their thirst. 



27 

By them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which 
sing among the branches. He watereth the hills from his chambers : 
the earth is satisfied with the fruit of thy works." 

" Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made 
them all : the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great and wide 
sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great 
beasts. There go the ships : there is that leviathan, whom thou 
hast made to play therein." 

The fruitfulness and beauty of the earth, as illustrating 
the wisdom and goodness of God, may serve as another 
lesson. Here may be exhibited the beauty and variety of 
the plants and flowers with which the earth is adorned ; 
the manner of their growth and self-propagation, their 
utility to man and beast, their immense number and 
variety, their relations to each other as genera and species; 
trees and their varieties, their beauty and utility, their 
timber and their fruit; and in connection with this lesson, 
Psalm civ, 14 - 34, may be committed to memory. 

" He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle; and herb for the 
service of man : that he may bring forth food out of the earth ; and 
wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face 
to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man's heart. The trees of 
the Lord are full of sap ; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath 
planted ; where the birds make their nests : as for the stork, the 
fir trees are her house. The high hills are a refuge for the wild 
goats ; and the rocks for the conies. He appointeth the moon for 
seasons: the sun knoweth his going down. Thou maketh darkness, 
and it is night: wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. 
The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meat from God. 
The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them 
down in their dens. Man goeth forth unto his work and to his 
labor until the evening." 

" These wait all upon thee ; that thou mayest give them their 
meat in due season. That thou givest them they gather; thou 
openest thine hand, they are filled with- good. Thou hidest thy face, 
they are troubled : thou takest away their breath, they die, and re- 
turn to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy Spirit, they are created : 



28 



and thou renewest the face of the earth. The glory of the Lord 
shall endure forever; the Lord shall rejoice in his works ; He 
looketh on the earth, and it trembleth : he toucheth the hills, and 
they smoke. I will sing unto the Lord as long as I live : I will sing 
praise to my Grod while I have my being. My meditation of him 
shall be sweet : I will be glad in the Lord." 

In like manner, the creation and nourishment, the 
habits and instincts of various animals may be contem- 
plated, in connection with Proverbs, vi, 6-8; Psalm civ, 
17-22 ; Proverbs, xxx, 24 - 31 ; Gen. i, 20 - 24 ; Psalm cxlv, 
15-16. 

" Go to the ant, thou sluggard ! consider her ways, and be wise : 
Which having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in 
the summer, and gathereth her food in the harvest." 

" There be four things which are little on the earth, but they are 
exceeding wise : the ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare 
their meat in the summer; the conies are but a feeble folk, yet 
make they their houses in the rocks ; the locusts have no king, yet go 
they forth all of them by bands ; the spider taketh hold with her 
hands, and is in king's palaces. There be three things which go 
well, yea, four are comely in going : a lion, which is strongest among 
beasts, and turneth not away for any : a greyhound ; a he-goat also ; 
and a king, against whom there is no rising up." 

" And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after 
his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beasts of the earth after his 
kind : and it was so. And God made the beasts of the earth after 
his kind, and cattle after their kind, and everything that creepeth 
upon the earth after his kind : and Gk>d saw that it was good." 

" The eyes of all wait upon thee : and thou givest them their meat 
in due season. Thou openest thine hand, and satisfiest the desire of 
every living thing. The Lord is righteous in all his ways, and holy 
in all his works." 

The phenomena of light and color, the nature of the 
rainbow, etc., may make another interesting lesson, illus- 
trating the unknown forms of beauty and glory which exist 
in the Divine mind, and which he may yet develop in 



29 



other and still more glorious worlds; in connection 
with Gen., i, 3, 5, 9, 13, 14, and other passages of like 
kind. 

So the properties of the air, wind, and storm, Job, xxviii, 
25 ; xxxviii, 33, 34, 35 ; Psalm cxlviii, 8. 

" Knowest thou the ordinance of heaven ? canst thou set the do- 
minion thereof in the earth ? Canst thou lift up thy voice to the 
clouds, that abundance of waters may cover thee ? Canst thou 
send lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are ? 
Who hath put wisdom in the inward parts ? or who hath given under- 
standing to the heart ? Who can number the clouds in wisdom ? 
or who can stay the battles of heaven ? " 

Then the heavens, the sun, moon, planets, fixed stars, 
and comets, the whole science of astronomy, so far as it 
can be introduced with advantage into common schools, 
can be contemplated in the same way. The enlightening, 
elevating, and purifing moral influence of such a scheme 
of instruction, carried through the whole system of nature, 
must be clearly obvious to every thinking mind; and its. 
utility, considered merely with reference to worldly good, 
is no less manifest. The second topic of religious instruc- 
tion is more exclusively scriptural. The life of Christ, and 
the history of the apostles, as given in the New Testament, 
are chronologically arranged, and tables formed as before. 
(Ill, 3.) The discourses of Christ are examined and ex- 
plained in their chronological arrangement, and in the same 
way the discourses and epistles of the apostles. The history 
of Christianity, in connection with the cotemporary civil 
history, is taught in a series of conversational lectures. To 
conclude the whole course of religious instruction, a 
summary of the Christian doctrine is given in the form of 
some approved catechism. 

2. Knowledge of the world and of mankind, including 
civil society, constitutional law, agriculture, mechanic arts, 
manufactures, etc. 



30 



This is a continuation and completion, in a more sys- 
tematic form, of the instruction commenced in III, 5. The 
course begins with the family, and the first object is to 
construct a habitation. The pupil tells what materials are 
necessary for this purpose, where they are to be found, 
how brought together and fitted into the several parts of 
the building. The house must now be furnished. The 
different articles of furniture and their uses are named in 
systematic order, the materials of which they are made, 
and the various trades employed in making them are enu- 
merated. Then comes the garden, its tools and products, 
and whatever else is necessary for the subsistence and phy- 
sical comfort of a family. Then the family duties and 
virtues ; parental and filial obligation and affection ; rights 
of property: duties of neighborhoods ; the civil relations of 
society; the religious relations of society; the state, the 
father-land, etc. ; finally, geography, history, and travels. 
Books of travels are compiled expressly for the use of 
schools, and are found to be of the highest interest and 
utility. 

3. Language, and exercises in composition. 

The object here is to give the pupils a perfect command 
of their native tongue, and ability to use it on all occasions 
with readiness and power. The first exercises are on 
simple questions, such as, ." Why ought children to love 
and obey their parentp?" or they are short descriptions 
of visible objects, such as a house, a room, a garden, etc. 
There are also exercises on the various forms of expressing 
the same idea, as, " The sun enlightens the earth." 
"The earth is enlightened by the sun." " The sun gives 
light to the earth." " The earth receives light from the 
sun." " The sun is the source of light to the earth." 
"The sun sends out its rays to enlighten the earth." 
" The earth is enlightened by rays sent out from the sun," 
etc. There are exercises also of the same sort on meta- 
phors and other figures of speech. Familiar letters are 



31 

then written, and short essays on themes such as may be 
furnished by texts from the Book of Proverbs, and other 
sentences of the kind ; and thus gradual advancement is 
made to all the higher and graver modes of composition. 

4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to the 
business of life, including surveying, civil engineering, etc. 

The utility of this branch of instruction, and the mode 
of it, after what has already been said, are probably too 
obvious to need any further illustration. 

5. Elements of drawing. 

For this the pupils have already been prepared by the 
exercises in ornamental writing, in the previous part of 
the course. They have already acquired that accuracy 
of sight and steadiness of hand which are among the most 
essential requisites to drawing well. The first exercises 
are in drawing lines, and the most simple mathematical 
figures, such as the square, the cube, the triangle, the paral- 
lelogram; generally from wooden models, placed at some 
little distance on a shelf, before the class. From this they 
proceed to architectural figures, such as doors, windows, 
columns, facades. Then the figures of animals, such as a 
horse, a cow, an elephant ; first from other pictures, and 
then from nature. A plant, a rose, or some flower is 
placed upon a shelf, and the class make a picture of it. 

From this they proceed to landscape painting, historical 
painting and the higher branches of the art, according to 
their time and capacity. All learn enough of drawing to 
use it in the common business of life, such as plotting a 
field, laying out a canal, or drawing the plan of a building; 
and many attain to a high degree of excellence. 

6. Exercises in singing and the science of music. 

The instructions of the previous parts are extended as 
far as possible, and include singing and playing at sight, 
and the more abstruse and difficult branches of the science 
and art of music. 



32 

la Bavaria, Wirtemburg, the Duchy of Baden and 
Nassau, as much, and in "Wirtemburg and Baden, perhaps 
even more, has been done to promote the intelligence, 
morality, and civilization of the lower orders of society, 
than in Prussia. In each of these countries, every village 
has a good school-house, and at least one learned and 
practically efficient teacher, who has been educated for 
several years at a college ; every town has several well- 
organized schools, sufficiently large to receive all the child- 
ren of the town, who are between the ages of six and 
fourteen ; each of these schools contains from four to ten 
class-rooms, and each class-room is under the direction 
of a highly educated teacher. 

In each of these countries, every parent is obliged to 
educate his children, either at home or at some school, 
the choice of means being left to himself. In none of 
these countries are children left to grow up in vicious 
ignorance or with debasing habits. 

In none of these countries, is there any class of children 
analogous to that which swarms in the back streets, alleys 
and gutters of our great cities and towns, and from which, 
our paupers, our disaffected, and our criminals grow up, 
and from which our " ragged schools " are filled. All the 
children are intelligent, polite, clean, and neatly dressed, 
and grow up from their sixth to their fourteenth year under 
the teaching and influence of educated men. 

In each of these countries a sufficient number of normal 
colleges has been founded, to enable it to educate a suffi- 
cient supply of teachers for the parishes and towns. 

In each of these countries, all the schools of every sect 
and party, private as well as public, are open to public 
inspection, and are visited several times every year by 
learned men, whose business it is to examine both teachers 
and scholars, and to give the government, the chambers, 
and the country, a full and detailed account of the state,, 



condition, character, and progress of every school, so that 
parents may know where to send their children with safety ; 
that good teachers may be encouraged, rewarded, and pro- 
moted ; and that unworthy teachers may not be suffered to 
continue long in their situations. 

In each of these countries, the laws prohibit any person 
being a teacher of any school, until he has proved his effi- 
ciency to the committee of professors, appointed by the 
state to examine candidates, and until he has laid before 
such committee testimonials of character from his religious 
minister, his neighbors, and the professors of the college 
at which he was educated. 



2. Burger or Middle Schools. 

Keligious Instruction. 

Class VI. Four hours per week. Narration by the 
teacher of stories from the Old Testament, in the words 
of the Bible, repeated by the pupils. Easy verses learned 
by heart. 

Class V. Four hours. Stories from the gospels, except 
the latter portion of the life of Christ. Church songs 
and Bible verses learned. 

Class IV. Three hours. The Old Testament in a more 
connected form. The moral of the history is impressed 
upon the children. The Ten Commandments and church 
songs committed to memory. 

Class III. Two hours. The life and doctrines of Christ, 
to the period of his imprisonment. Church history. 
Four weeks are set apart for learning the geography of 
Palestine. 

Class II. Two hours.' The Protestant catechism com- 
mitted to memory and explained. Church songs and 
verses committed. 

5 



34 

Class I. Two hours. A compendium of the history of 
the Christian Church, particularly after the apostolic age. 
History of the Reformation. Review of the Bible. Com- 
mitting to memory psalms and hymns continued. 

German Language. 

Class YI. Four hours. Exercises of speech. Stories 
narrated to the children and repeated by them. After 
learning to write, these stories are written upon the slate. 

Class Y. Four hours. Exercises in orthography. Ety- 
mology begun. 

Class IY. Four hours. Exercises in orthography and 
style. . Every week a short composition is written on some 
subject which has been narrated. 

Class III. Grammar continued. 

Class II. Four hours. Original compositions, wnich are 
corrected during the recitations. Syntax commenced. 

Class I. Three hours. Compositions on historical sub- 
jects. Essays written at home, and corrected in the class- 
room. Syntax continued. 

Latin Language. 

Class IY. Three hours. Declensions of nouns, adjec- 
tives, and pronouns learned. Examples learned by heart, 
and others written as an exercise at home. Auxiliary 
verbs conjugated. 

Class III. Four hours. Comparison of adjectives. Re- 
gular verbs conjugated. 

Class II. Four hours. Irregular verbs. Syntax begun. 
Translation from Latin into German. 

Class I. Six hours. Grammar continued. Written ex- 
ercises at home and in the class. Every four weeks 
an extempore exercise is written, which the teachers 
correct out of school hours. Cornelius Nepos read and 
construed. 



35 



French Language. 

Class III. Three hours. Exercises in reading. Ele- 
ments of grammar. Words learned by heart. Easy exer- 
cises written at home and in school hours. 

Class II. Four hours. Regular and irregular verbs 
learned. Syntax. Translations from French into German. 
Words learned by rote. 

Class I. Four hours. Written exercises of increased 
difficulty. Tables dictated and learned by heart. Vol- 
taire's Charles XII read. 

Arithmetic. 

Class VI. Four hours. Practical arithmetic. The 
fundamental operations taught with numbers from one to 
one hundred ; first mentally, then with blocks, and after- 
ward with figures. Exercises prepared at home twice a 
week. 

Class V. Four hours. The four ground rules continued, 
with numbers as high as one thousand. Exercises in 
reading and writing large numbers. Mental arithmetic 
especially practiced. Addition and subtraction of abstract 
numbers. 

Class IV. Four hours. Addition and subtraction re- 
vised. Multiplication and division of abstract numbers. 
Weights and measures explained. 

Class III. Four hours. The four ground rules with 
fractions. 

Class II. Three hours. Revision of the above. Rule of 
three. 

Class I. Three hours. In the first year practical arith- 
metic finished. Proportions and decimal fractions. Ele- 
ments of algebra. Mental algebra. 



36 



Geometry. 

Class IV. Two hours. The essential preparatory exer- 
cises in form, in connection with drawing. Rudiments 
explained. 

Class III. Two hours. Practice in the position of points, 
drawing of lines, angles, plane figures, representations of 
solids. 

Class II. Two hours. Elements of geometry proper, the 
point, line, angles, triangles, and measures of straight lines, 
surfaces, and contents. 

Class I. Two hours. Plane geometry completed, with 
practical exercises. Every alternate six months, lessons in 
physics are given. 

Natural History. 

Class II. Two hours. In the summer term, study of 
certain classes of plants. In the winter term, of animals. 
The subject is illustrated by drawings. 

Class I. Two hours. Systematic botany during the win- 
ter term, and zoology and mineralogy during the winter. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Class III. Two hours. Knowledge of home. Berlin 
and its environs. Regency of Potsdam. Province of 
Brandenburg. Necessary technical terms explained, as 
horizontal, vertical, etc. 

Class II. Two hours. Geography of Prussia and Ger- 
many. 

Class I. Two hours. General geography, particularly 
Europe and America. Asia more generally, Africa and 
Australia very briefly. 

History. 

Class II. Two hours. View of universal history, bio- 
graphical rather than chronological. 



37 

Class I. Two hours. First year universal history com- 
pleted. Second year the history of Germany, and par- 
ticularly of Prussia. The most important inventions and 
discoveries are noticed in connection with the history of 
these countries. 

Reading. 

Class VI. Seven hours. Eeading by the phonic (lautir) 
method. Analysis of words in regard to division into 
syllables and sounds. 

Class V. Seven hours. Mechanical reading continued, 
but with reference to the meaning of the words. The 
pupils are examined upon words, sentences, and para- 
graphs. 

Class IV. Four hours. Explanatory reading continued 
Accentuation. No piece is allowed to be read without it 
being understood. 

Class III. Two hours. Rythmical reading begun. In- 
teresting portions of the matter read, narrated by the pupils 
in their own words. 

Class II. Two hours. Rythmical reading continued. 

Class I. Two hours. Reading of some of the German 
classics. Analysis of the subject read. 

Writing. 

Class "VI. Five hours. Introductory exercises of draw- 
ing upon the slate. Copying the small letters from the 
blackboard. Writing on paper. Capital letters. Writ- 
ten exercises at home twice a week. 

Class V. Five hours. Writing of German characters 
continued. Roman letters begun. Copying from a book 
at home, with special reference to orthography. 

Class IV. Four hours. Writing in German and Roman 
characters Continued. Two hours copying from copy-slips. 
Two hours writing from dictation. 



38 

Class III. Three hours. Exercises of Class IV, con- 
tinued. Pupils who write well are allowed to write with- 
out lines. Writing without copies, according to progress. 

Class II. Two hours. Exercises continued. Most of 
the pupils write without lines, or by directing points merely. 

Class I. The written exercises in other departments are 
examined, to ascertain the character of the handwriting. 
No special lessons are given. 

Drawing. 

Class IV. Two hours. Drawing straight lines in various 
directions and of various lengths. Making definite angles. 
Drawing triangles, squares, and other rectilinear figures. 

Class III. Two hours. Drawing of circles and ovals. 

Class II. Two hours. Drawing of bodies bounded by 
planes and straight lines in perspective. Drawing of 
curves. 

Class I. Drawing from natural objects, from plaster casts 
and models. 

Singing. 

Class IV. Two hours suffice to learn fifteen or twenty 
songs, of one or two verses, by note, and some ten choral 
songs. 

Class III. Two hours. Songs with two parts continued. 
Chorals with one voice. 

Class II. Two hours. Songs with two or three voices 
continued. 

Class I. Two hours. Songs and chorals with three or 
four parts. 

Once during the morning there is an interval for recrea- 
tion in the court-yard of the school, and the pupils are 
directed in their exercises of marching and counter-march- 
ing, and the like, by one of the teachers. 

The course marked out in the foregoing programme, as 
far as it extends, seems to me well adapted to educate the 



39 



moral and intellectual faculties, as well as the senses ; to 
give mental vigor, while it furnishes information useful to 
the pupil in after life. 



3. Teacher's Seminary. 

The following table will show what the subjects of in- 
struction are : 





Time Table in 


Teachers' College in Dresden. 


Summer 


Winter 




Half Year. 


Half Tear. 


• 


Number of hours 


Number of hours 


each Week in 


each Week in 


Classes. 




Class. 




Class. 




I. 

2 


II. 

2 


in. 

2 


I. 

2 


II. 

2 


hi. 

2 


1. Religion. 





1 


1 


2 


1 


1 


2. Explanation of the Scriptures. 





1 


1 





1 


1 


3. Scripture history. 


3 


1 


1 


3 








■ 4. Catechism. 


1 








1 








5. Religious exhortation. 


2 








2 








6. Pedagogy. 





3 


3 





3 


3 


7. Special methods of teaching. 


2 


1 


1 


2 








j 8. I. Rhetoric and reading exercises ; 
] II and III. Mental calculations. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


9! Recitation. 


2 








2 








10. Natural philosophy. 





2 


2 





2 


2 


11. Natural history. 





1 


1 





1 


1 


12. Geography. 


1 

















13. Mathematical geography. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


14. History. 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 


15. German' language. 


2 








2 





•0 


16. Latin language. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


17. Writing. 


1 


2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


18. Arithmetic. 


6 


i 


2 











19. Geometrical drawing. 


i 








1 


1 


1 


20. Geometry. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


21. Drawing. 








1 


1 


1 


2 


22. Singing. 


i 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


23. Choral singing. 


l 


1 














24. Quartet singing. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


25. Concert singing. 


6 


3 


2 


3 


1 


6 


j 26. I. Organ playing. II and III. Violin 
1 playing. 


13 


19 


19 


7 


12 


6 


27. Preparation and exercise hours. 


2 
52 


2 
51 


2 
50 


2 
42 


2 
40 


2 
40 


28. Gymnastic exercises. 


Total number of hours per week. 



40 

The students rise in summer at 5 o'clock, and in winter 
at 6 o'clock, in the morning : as soon as they are dressed, 
they meet in one of the class-rooms, where the director reads 
the morning prayers ; their hours of study are from 7 to 12 
a. m. and from 2 to 5 p.m. 

Connected with the college is a primary school for child- 
ren of that district of the city, in which the college is 
situated : this school is under the direction of a regularly 
appointed and experienced teacher, and is attended by 105 
children, who are divided into three classes, to each of 
which is assigned a separate class-room in one part of the 
college buildings. In these classes, a certain number of 
students from the college first practice teaching under the 
eye, and aided by the advice of the teacher. 

At the end of this long and careful preparation, they are 
called before the board of examiners. If the young man is 
a Protestant, his religious examination is conducted by the 
board of examiners themselves; but if he is a Romanist, a 
priest is joined to the board, and conducts the religious 
part of the examination. 

The examination lasts three days. On the first day the 
subjects are — 

From 1 to 10 o'clock, A. m., Scripture history. 
" 10 to 12 " " Pedagogy. 

" 2 to 4 " P. M., Mathematics and the theory of music. 

The answers to the questions of the first day's examina- 
tion are given in writing. On the second day the subjects 
are — 

( Catechising a class of village school 
From 7 to 11 o'clock, A. M., <J children on some subject of ele- 

^ mentary instruction. 

( Reading ; 

a n to 12 " " J Aritnmefcic ; and 

• An object lesson given to school child- 
ren. 



I 



From 1 to 2 o'clock p. m., < 



41 

" A viva voce examination — 
In religion ; 
The Scriptures ; 
Luther's catechism ; and 
Pedagogy. 



{German language ; 
Logic; and 
Psychology. 



" ft to 6 



f History ; 
J Geography; 
] Natural philosophy ; and 
[ Natural history. 



On the third day the subjects of examination are — 

Organ playing ; 
Singing ; 
Piano-forte; and 
Violin. 

If the young candidate, who had been educated for four 
years in a teachers' college, can not pass this examination so 
as to satisfy the examiners, he is obliged to continue his 
studies until he can do so. But if he passes the examina- 
tion in a satisfactory manner, the examiners grant him a 
diploma, which is marked " excellent," " good," or " passa- 
ble," according to the manner in which he acquitted 
himself in his examination. 

If the young candidate does not obtain a certificate 
marked " excellent," but only one marked " good," or 
"passable," he can not officiate as teacher, until he has 
spent two years in some school as assistant to an expe- 
rienced teacher. 

At the end of this time, he is obliged again to present 
himself to the board of examiners, who examine him again 
in the most careful and searching manner. If he passes 
this examination, he receives another diploma marked " ex- 
cellent," "good," or " passable," according to his merit, 
and if he obtains a diploma marked " excellent," he is 
enrolled among the members of the teachers' profession, 
6 



42 

and is allowed to officiate either as a private tutor or as a 
village teacher. But if he can not obtain this diploma, he is 
obliged to continue to act as an assistant teacher until he can 
do so. Seminar Director Dr. Otto, the principal of the 
normal college, and a member of the board of examiners, 
assured me, that it was a common thing for candidates 
to be examined four or five times, before they succeeded 
in obtaining a teachers' diploma. When they have at last 
succeeded, they, as well as those who obtained the diploma 
marked " excellent " in the first examination, are eligible 
as teachers. 

The school committee of the different parishes elect 
their own teachers. The only condition, to which this 
right is subjected is, that they may not elect any person, 
who has not obtained a diploma of competence from the 
board of examiners. 



4. City Trade School 

The City Trade School is to give a more appropriate edu- 
cation for the mechanic arts and higher trades then can be 
had through the courses of classical schools. It is a great 
point gained, when the principle is admitted that different 
kinds of education are suited to different objects in life; 
and such an admission belongs to an advanced stage of 
education. As a consequence of a general sentiment of 
this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruct 
tion of those not intended for the learned professions grow 
up by the side of the others. 

Third Class. 

Physics. Electricity and magnetism, with experiments. 
Two hours. Chemistry. Water and non-metallic bodies 
with experiments. Two hours. 



43 

Writing. Two hours. Architectural and topographical 
drawing. Two hours. Some of the pupils during this 
time are engaged in ornamental drawing. 

Vocal music. Two hours. 

Second Class. 

Religious Instruction. Explanation of the first three 
gospels. History of the Christian religion and church to 
the reformation. Two hours. 

German. Correction of exercises written at home, upon 
subjects assigned by the teacher. Oral and written exer- 
cises. Introduction to the history of German poetry. 
Three hours. 

French. Grammar; extemporalia for the application of 
the rules. Written and oral translations from German 
into French, from Beauvais's Manual, and vice versa, from 
Ideler and ISTolte's Manual. Four hours. 

English. Exercises in reading and speaking. Transla- 
tion into German, from Burkhardt. Dictation. Verbs. 
Two hours. 

Arithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to 
include simple and quadratic equations. Logarithyms. 
Three hours. 

Geometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonom- 
etry. Three hours. 

Geography. The states of Europe, with special reference 
to their population, manufactures and commerce. Two 
hours. 

History. Principal events of the history of the middle 
ages and of later times, as an introduction to recent history. 
One hour. 

Natural History. Mineralogy. Physiology of plants. 
Three hours. 

Chemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, with 
experiments. Three hours. 



44 



Architectural, topographical, and plain drawing. 
Drawing with instruments. Introduction to India ink 
drawing. Beginning of the science of construction. 
Two hours. 

Drawing. From copies, and from plaster and other 
models. Two hours. This kind of drawing may be 
learned instead of the above. 

Vocal music. Two hours. 

First Class. 

Religious Instruction. History of the Christian religion 
and church continued. References to the Bible. One 
hour. 

German. History of German literature to recent times. 
Essays. Exercises of delivery. Three hours. 

French. Reading from the manual of Buchner and 
Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic authors read. Review 
of grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free 
delivery. Correction of exercises. Four hours. 

English. Syntax, with written and extempore exer- 
cises from Burkhardt. Reading of classic authors. Writ- 
ing of letters. " Exercises in speaking. 

Arithmetic. Algebra. Simple and quadratic equa- 
tions. Binomial and polynomial theorems. Higher equa- 
tions. Commercial arithmetic continued. Three hours. 

Geometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications. 
Conic sections. Descriptive geometry. Three hours. 

History. History of the middle ages. Modern history 
with special reference to the progress of civilization, of 
inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry. 
Three hours. 

Natural History. In summer, botany, the principal 
families, according to the natural system. In winter, 
zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of exa- 
mining specimens, to the Royal Museum. 



45 

Physics. In summer, optics with experiments. In 
winter, the system of the world. Three hours. 

Technology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades, 
described and illustrating by models. Excursions to visit 
the principal workshops. Four hours. 

Architectural and machine drawing. Two hours, 
those pupils who do not take part in this, receive lessons 
in ornamental drawing from plaster models. 

Vocal music. Two hours. 

The pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in mani- 
pulating in the laboratory of the institution several hours 
each week. 

The facilities for the courses are furnished by a collection 
of mathematical and physical apparatus, a laboratory, with 
a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and a series of 
tests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures 
(or technological collection) a collection of dried plants, 
and of engravings for the botanical course, and a small 
garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collec- 
tion of insects, a collection in comparative anatomy, a series 
of engravings for the drawing course, and of plaster models, 
a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some 
astronomical instruments, and a library. The pupils are 
taken from time to time, to the admirable museum attached 
to the university of Berlin, for the examination of zoological 
specimens especially. 



5. Royal Ileal Schools. 

The Royal Real School of Berlin was founded as early 
as 1747, by Counsellor Hecker. At the period in which 
this school was founded, Latin and Greek were the exclu- 
sive objects of study in the learned schools, and the avowed 
purpose of this establishment was that " not mere words 



46 

should be taught to the pupils, but realities, explanations 
being made to them from nature, from models and plans, 
'and from subjects calculated to be useful in after-life." 
Hence the school was called a " real school," and preserves 
this name, indicative of the great educational reform which 
it was intended to promote, and the success of which has 
been, though slow, most certain. 

In the Royal Real School the branches of instruction 
are — religion, Latin, French, English, German, physics, 
natural history, chemistry, history, geography, drawing, 
writing, and vocal music. The Latin is retained as practi- 
cally useful in some branches of trade, as in pharmacy, as 
aiding in the nomenclature of natural history, and as pre- 
venting a separation in the classes of this school and that 
of the gymnasium, which would debar the pupils from 
passing from the former to the latter in the upper classes. 
It must be admitted that, for all purposes but the last, it 
occupies an unnecessary degree of attention, especially in 
the middle classes. 

The following table shows the distribution of time 
among the courses. There are seven classes in numerical 
order, but ten, in fact, the third, fourth, and fifth being 
divided into two ; the lower fourth is again, on account 
of its numbers, subdivided into two parallel sectious. Of 
these the seventh, sixth, and fifth are elementary classes, 
the pupils entering the seventh at between five and 
seven years of age. In the annexed table the number, 
of hours of recitation per week of each class in the several 
subjects is stated, and the vertical column separating the 
elementary classes from the others, contains the sum of the 
hours devoted to each branch in the higher clases, exclud- 
ing the lower section of the fourth class, which has not a 
distinct course from that of the other division. 



47 



Table Showing the Number op Hours op Recitation per Week, of 
each Class, in the Subjects taught in the Royal Real School 
op Berlin. 



Subjects of Study. 



Latin, . . . 
French, . 
English,. 
German,. 



Religion, 

Mathematics,*. . 
Natural History,. 

Physics, 

Chemistry, 

Geography, 

History, 



Drawing, 2 2 

Writing, 

Singing, 2 



fe 



Total,. 



36 36 



85 



mm 



fefe 



2 

2 

2 2 



35 32 



02 



2 A 



::•> 



28 



15 

12 
4 

15 



10 



10 



2 2 
6 6 



2 2 
2 2 



26 



Proportion of other 
studies to German 
in the 



6 
26 26 



P3 



1.4 
1.1 
0.3 
1.0 

0-6 
1.7 
0.4 
0.4 

0.4 
0.4 
0.7 

0.6 

02 

0.7 






2d 



2.9 
0.7 

0.8 

0.6 

1.1 

O.lf 

0.2f 

0.5 
0.3 

0.4 
0.3 
0.6 



0.9 

1.0 

0.8 
1.6 
0.1 
0.2 

0.5 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
0.6 



Pupils who enter this school between five and seven 
years of age, and go regularly through the elementary 
classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher classes, or 
to enter the lowest of the gymnasium. It is thus after 
the fifth class that a comparison of the two institutions 
must begin. The studies of the real school proper, and 
of the gymnasium, have exactly the same elementary basis, 
and they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil, 
by taking extra instruction in Greek, may pass from the 
lower third class of the former to the lower third of the 
latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real 



* Including arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry. 
f These numbers include the entire course. 



48 

schools must be institutions for secondary instruction, since 
the pupils have yet three classes to pass through after 
reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to 
separate the real schools from the higher burgher schools, 
since the extreme limit of the courses of the latter, with 
the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables the 
pupil to reach the lower third class of the gymnasium. 
In general, a pupil would terminate his studies in the real 
school at between sixteen and eighteen years of age. The 
difference between the subjects of instruction in the real 
school and the Frederick William gymnasium, consists in 
the omission in the former of Greek, Hebrew, and phi- 
losophy, and the introduction of English and chemistry. 
The relative proportions of time occupied in the same 
subjects in the two schools, will be seen by comparing the 
two columns next on the right of the numbers for the 
seventh class, in the table just given. The first of these 
columns contains the proportion of the number of hours 
per week devoted to the different subjects in the six classes 
of the real school above the elementary, the number of hours 
devoted to the German being taken as unity ; and the 
second, the same proportion for six classes of the gymna- 
sium, beginning with the lowest, the same number of 
hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding column. 



6. Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin. 

The numbers attached to the names of the different 
classes, in the following programme, show the number of 
hours of study per week in the regular branches in which 
the division of classes takes place. In like manner, the 
numbers attached to the several subjects of study show 
how many hours are occupied per week in each of the 
subjects by the several classes. 



49 



Sixth Class, Thirty Hours. 

Latin. Inflections of nouns, etc. Comparisons. Con- 
jugation of the indicative moods of regular and of some 
irregular verbs. Translation from Blume's elementary 
book. Exercises from Blume. Extemporalia. Ten hours. 

German. Etymology and syntax. Exercises in writing 
upon subjects previously narrated. Exercises in ortho- 
graphy, reading and declaiming. Four hours. 

French. Etymology, to include the auxiliary verbs, in 
Herrmann's grammar. Oral and written exercises. Read- 
ing and translation. Exercises on the rules from the 
grammar. Three hours. 

Religion. Bible history of the Old Testament. Com- 
mitting to memory selected verses. Two hours. 

Geography. Delineation of the outlines of Europe, 
Africa, Asia, and America, from determinate points given. 
Divisions of the countries, with their principal cities, rivers 
and mountains. Two hours. 

Arithmetic. The four ground rules, with denominate 
whole numbers. Their applications. Four hours. 

Writing. Elements of round and running hand. Dic- 
tation. Writing from copy slips. Three hours. 

Drawing. Exercises in drawing lines. Tw6 hours. 

Fifth Class, Twenty-Nine Hours. 

Latin. Etymology. Use of the prepositions. The accu- 
sative before an infinitive, practiced orally and in writing, 
and extempore, and in exercises. Translation from Blume's 
reader. Ten hours. 

German. Parsing, reading and declamation. Exercises 
on narrations. Fourhour3. French. Etymology, by oral 
and written exercises. Easier stories from Hermann's 
reader. Three hours. 

Religion. Explanation of the gospels, according to 
St. Matthew and St. Luke. Committing to memory the 
7 



50 

principal facts. Two hours. Geography. Review of the 
last year's course. Rivers and mountains of Europe, and 
chief towns, in connection. Two hours. 

Arithmetic. Review of the preceding. Fractions. 
Four hours. 

Writing. Running hand from copy slips. Two hours. 
Drawing. Drawing from bodies, terminated by planes and 
straight lines. Two hours. 

Fourth Class, Twenty-eight Hours. 

Latin. Review of etymology. The principal rules en- 
forced by oral and written exercises and extemporalia. 
Translation from Jacob's reader and Corn. JSTepos. Ten 
hours. 

G-erman. Compositions on subjects previously read. 
Declamation. Reading from Kalisch's reader. Parsing. 
Three hours. 

French. Review of etymology. Irregular verbs. Re- 
ciprocal verbs. Anecdotes and narrations from Hermann's 
grammar, and committing the principal to memory. Two 
hours. 

Religion. Gospel according to St. Matthew, explained. 
Verses and psalms committed to memory. Two hours. 

Geography. Political geography of Germany, and of the 
rest of Europe. Review of the geography of the other 
parts of the world. Three hours. 

Arithmetic. Review of fractions. Simple and com- 
pound proportion. Partnership. Simple interest. Three 
hours. 

Geometry. Knowledge of forms, treated inductively. 
One hour. 

"Writing. Running hand, from copy slips. Two hours. 

Drawing. From bodies bounded by curved lines. Two 
hours. 



51 

Lower Third Class, Thirty Hours. 

Latin. Syntax. Rules of cases from Zumpt. Exercises 
and extemporalia. Inflections formerly learned reviewed. 
Cornelius Nepos. Eight hours. 

Greek. Etymology, from Buttmann's grammar to 
regular verbs, included. Translations from Greek into 
German from Jacob's, from German into Greek from Hess's 
exercises. Six hours. 

German. Compositions in narration and description. 
Declamation. Two hours. 

French. Repetition of inflections, and exercises by 
extemporalia and in writing. Translation of the fables 
from Herrmann's reading book, 2d course. Two hours. 

Religion. Morals, and Christian faith. Two hours. 

Geography. Physical geography. Europe and the 
other parts of the world. Two hours. 

History. General view of ancient and modern history. 
Two hours. 

Mathematics. Legendre's geometry, book 1. Decimals. 
Algebra. Square and cube root. Four hours. 

Drawing. Introduction to landscape drawing. Two 
hours. 

Upper Third Class, Thirty Hours. 

Latin. Division 1. Syntax, from Zumpt. Review of 
the preceding course. Oral exercises in construction of 
sentences. Written exercises and extemporalia. Csesar 
Bell. Gall., books 1, 2, and 7, in part. Ovid's Metamor- 
phoses, extracts from books 7 and 8. Prosody, rules 
from Zumpt. Ten hours. 

Greek. Division 1. Etymology, from Buttmann's gram- 
mar. Oral and written exercises and extemporalia. 
Jacob's reader. Six hours. 

German. Exami nation of exercises on historical subj ects. 
Poetical selections for declamation. Two hours. 



52 

French. Exercises in translation. Written exercises. 
Extemporalia. Two hours. 

Eeligion. Principal passages from the gospels gone over. 
General view of the Old Testament writings. Two hours. 

History and Geography. Roman history from the Punic 
Wars to the destruction of the western empire. History 
of the middle ages, three hours. Review of the five general 
divisions of the world, one hour. Four hours. 

Mathematics. Geometry. Legendre, books 1 and 2, 
and part of 3. Algebra, with exercises from Meyer Hirsch. 
Four hours. 

Lower Second Class, Thirty-one Hours. 

Latin. Extracts from Livy and Caesar de Bell. Civ. 
Review of Bell. Gall., books 2 and 3. Syntax. Exercises 
and extemporalia. Committing to memory exercises from 
Livy and Caesar. Ovid's Metamophoses, books 11 to 14. 
Eight hours. 

Greek. Homer's Odys., 11 12, 13, and 14. Exercises 
on the dialects. Xenophon's Anab., 1', 2, and, part of 3. 
Excerpts from the grammar reviewed. Exercises and 
extemporalia. Syntax. Six hours. 

Hebrew. Grammar, ending with irregular verbs. Easier 
parts of historical books of Scripture translated. Vocabu- 
lary learned by rote. Exercises on regular and irregular 
verbs out of the recitation room. Two hours. 

German. Correction of written exercises and essays. 
Exercises on delivery. Two hours. 

French. Voltaire's Charles XII. Exercises and extem- 
poralia. Two hours. 

Religion. Explanation of the principal parts of the 
Epistles of St. Paul, with historical sketches, and a view 
of the life of early Christian communities. Two hours. 

History. Roman history, from the Punic Wars. History 
of the middle ages concluded. General view of history. 
Three hours. 



53 

Mathematics. Geometry to proportions and simple 
figures. Elements of algebra. Logarithms. Four hours. 

Natural History. Mineralogy. Botany, especially of 
native plants. Two hours. 

Upper Second Class, Thirty-two Hours. 

Latin. Cicero's Orations, pro. Rose. Amer., de Amic, 
de Senectute. Livy, books 22 to 25, inclusive. Virgil's 
JEneid, books 1 and 2. Some eclogues and excerpts from 
Georgics. Exercises and extemporalia. Mne hours. 

Greek. Homer's Iliad, books 4 to 11, inclusive. Arrian 
Alex, expedition, books 1 and 2. Buttmann's grammar 
with exercises and extemporalia. Six hours. 

Hebrew. Books of Judges and of Ruth, with exercises 
of syntax. Easy exercises, and committing vocabulary to 
memory out of the class-room. Two hours. 

German. Essays. Delivery. Two hours. 

Erench. Excerpts from Harmann and Bnichner's 
manual of the more recent French literature. Two hours. 

Religion. Christian faith and morals. Two hours. 

History. Review of ancient history and geography, 
using the Latin language. Three hours. 

Mathematics. Arithmetical geometry and plane trigo- 
nometry. Algebraic exercises. Polygons. Stereometry. 
Simple and quadratic equations. Four hours. 

Physics. General physics. Electricity and magnetism. 
Two hours. 

First Class, Thirty-one Hours. 

Latin. Horace's Odes, books 3 and 4. Cicero against 
Verres. Tacitus Annals, books 11 and 12, and extracts 
from 3 to 6. Cicero, Tusc. quest. Extempore transla- 
tions from German into Latin. Exercises. Declamation. 
Eight hours. 



54 

Greek. Homer's Iliad, book 16, Odyssey, books 9 to 16, 
inclusive. Hippias Major, Charmides and Gorsias of Plato, 
(excerpts.) Sophocles' Edip. tyr. and Antigone. Gram- 
matical exercises. Buttmann's grammar. Six hours. 

Hebrew. Second book of Kings. Genesis. Psalms, 
16 to 100. Grammatical criticisms of historical excerpts, 
or of psalms, as an exercise at home. Two hours. 

German. Criticism of compositions. General gram- 
mar, and history of the German grammar and literature. 
One hour. 

French. Selections from Scribe and Delavigne. Exer- 
cises and extemporalia. Two hours. 

Religion. History of the Christian church, to the times 
of Gregory VII. Two hours. 

History. Modern history, and review. Three hours. 

Mathematics. Plane trigonometry and application of 
algebra to geometry. Algebra. Mensuration and conic 
sections. Binomial theorem. Exponential and trigon. 
functions. Four hours. 

Physics. Physical geography. Mechanics. Two hours. 

Philosophy. Propedeutics. Logic. One hour. 

There are five classes for vocal music, the fifth receiving 
two hours of instruction in musical notation and singing 
by ear. The fourth, time and cliffs, etc. Exercises in the 
natural scale and harmony. Songs and chorals with one 
part. The third, two hours formation of the scale of sharps, 
running the gamut with difficult intervals, combined with 
the practical exercises of the last class. The second, two 
hours, repetition of tones; sharps, and flats. ■ Formation 
of the scale of flats. Exercises of songs and chorals, in two 
parts. The first class is an application of what has been 
learned, as well as a continuation of the science and art, 
and all the pupils do not, of course, take part in this stage 
of the instruction. The course is of four hours per week, 
two for soprano and alto, one for tenor and bass, and one 



55 

for the union of the four parts. The proficiency is indicated 
by the fact, that the pupils perform very creditably such 
compositions as -Haydn's Creation and Handel's Messiah. 



6. Institute of Arts of Berlin.. 

Winter Course. 

Monday. First Class, first division — drawing and sketch- 
ing machines, eight a. m. to twelve o'clock. Discussion of 
machines, estimates of power, etc., two p. m. to five p. m. 
Second division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo- 
deling in clay, ten to twelve. Physics, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo- 
deling, ten to twelve. Elements of geometry, two to four. 
Repetition of the lecture, four to five. 

Tuesday. First Class, first division — architectural plans 
and estimates, eight to twelve. Practical instruction in 
machinery, two to five. Second division — ornamental 
and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Trigonometry, 
two to five. 

Second Class. Ornamental and architectural drawing, 
eight to twelve. Physics, two to four. Repetition of the 
lecture, four to five. 

Wednesday. First Class, first division — original designs, 
eight to twelve. Discussion of machinery. Second 
division — mineralogy, eight to nine. Machine drawing, 
nine to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. 
Practical arithmetic, two to five. 

Thursday. First Class, first division — drawing and 
sketching machines, eight to twelve. Architectural in- 
struction, estimates, two to five. Second division — 
decorative and architectural drawing, eight to ten. Mo- 
deling in clay, ten to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five. 



56 

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, 
eight to ten. Modeling in clay, ten to twelve. Physics, 
two to four. Repetition of the lecture, four to five. 

Friday. First Class, first division — architectural plans, 
eight to twelve. Practical instruction in machinery, two 
to five. Second division — machine drawing, eight to 
twelve. Physics, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. 
Elementary mathematics, two to four. Repetition of the 
lessons, four to five. 

Saturday. First Class, first division — perspective and 
stone-cutting, eight to twelve. Original designs, two to 
five. Second division — mineralogy, eight to nine. De- 
corative and architectural drawing, nine to twelve. Tri- 
gonometry, two to five. 

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, 
eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to five. 

The summer term, which follows this, embraces the 
practical instruction. 

Summer Term. 

Monday. First Class, first division — in the workshops 
from seven a. m. to twelve, and from one until seven p. m. 
Second division — machine drawing, eight to twelve. 
Applied mathematics, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo- 
deling, ten to twelve. Chemistry, two to four. Repeti- 
tion, four to five. 

Tuesday. First Class, first division — analytical dyna- 
mics, eight to ten. Drawing of machines from original 
designs, nine to twelve. Machinery, two to five. Second 
division — decorative and architectural drawing, eight to 
twelve. Chemistry, two to five. 

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, 
eight to twelve. Elementary mathematics, two to four. 
Repetition, four to five. 



57 

Wednesday. First Class, first division — in the work- 
shops from seven to twelve, and from one to seven. 
Second division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo- 
deling, ten to twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. 
Practical arithmetic, two to four. Materials used in the 
arts, four to five. 

Thursday. First Class, first division — in the workshops 
from seven to twelve, and from one to seven. Second 
division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Modeling, 
ten to twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five. 

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, 
eight to ten. Modeling, ten to twelve. Chemistry, two 
to four. Repetition of the lesson, four to five. 

Iriday. First Class, first division — analytical dyna- 
mics, eight to nine. Drawing of a machine for an ori- 
ginal design, nine to twelve. Machinery, two to five. 
Second division — chemistry, eight to nine. Applied 
mathematics, nine to twelve. Chemistry, two to five. 

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. 
Elementary mathematics, two to four. Eepetition of the 
lesson, four to five. 

Saturday. First Class, first division — in the workshops, 
from seven to twelve, and from one to seven. Second 
division — decorative and architectural drawing, eight to 
twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five. 

Second Class, Decorative and architectural drawing, 
eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to four. Ma- 
terials used in the arts, four to five. 

The chemical division of the practical classes is engaged 
every day in the laboratory. On Tuesday and Wednes- 
day, the library is open for reading from five to eight, p. m. 

The collections for carrying out the various branches of 
instruction are upon the same liberal scale with the other 
parts of the institution. There is a. library of works on 



58 

architecture,' mechanics, technology, the various arts, 
archaeology, etc., in German, French, and English. This 
library is open twice a week, from five to eight in the 
evening, to the pupils of the first class of the school, and 
to such mechanics as apply for the use of it. 

There is a rich collection of drawings of new and useful 
machines, and of illustrations of the different courses, 
belonging to the institution. Among them is a splendid 
work, entitled Models for Manufacturers and Artisans, 
(Vorlegeblatter fur Fabricanten und Handwerker) con- 
taining engravings by the best artists of Germany, and 
some even from France and England, applicable to the 
different arts and to architecture and engineering. Among 
the drawings are many from original designs by Shenckel, 
of Berlin. There is a second useful but more ordinary 
series of engravings, on similar subjects, also executed 
for the use of the school. These works are distributed to 
the provincial trade schools, and presented to such of the 
mechanics of Prussia as have especially distinguished 
themselves in their vocation. The collection of models of 
machinery belonging to the school probably ranks next in 
extent and value to that at the Conservatory of Arts of Paris. 
It contains models of such machines as are not readily com- 
prehended by drawings. Most of them are working models, 
aud many were made in the workshops of the school. They 
are constructed, as far as possible, to a uniform scale, 
and the parts of the models are of the same materials as 
in the actual machine. There is an extensive collection 
of casts, consisting of copies of statues, basso-relievos, 
utensils, bronzes, and vases of the museums of Naples, 
Pome, and Florence, and of the British Museum, and of 
the models of architectural monuments of Greece, Rome, 
Pompeii, etc., and copies of models, cameos, and similar 
objects; those specimens only have been selected which 
are not in the collection of the Academy of Fine Arts of 



59 

Berlin, to which the pupils of the Institute of Arts have 
access. There are good collections of physical and chemi- 
cal apparatus, of minerals, of geological and technological 
specimens. 

The instruction is afforded in part by the lectures of 
the professors, aided by text books specially intended for 
the school, and in part by the interrogations of the pro- 
fessors and of the assistants and repeaters. At the close 
of the first year there is an examination to determine 
which of the pupils shall be permitted to go forward, and 
at the close of the second year to determine which shall 
receive the certificate of the institute. Although the 
pupils who come from the provinces are admitted to the 
first class of the institute, upon their presenting a testi- 
monial that they have gone through the course of the 
provincial schools satisfactorily, it frequently happens that 
they are obliged to retire to the second, especially from 
defective knowledge of chemistry. 

The cost of this school to the government is about 
twelve thousand dollars annually, exclusive of the amount 
expended upon the practical courses and upon the collec- 
tions — a very trifling sum, if the good which it is calcu- 
lated to do throughout the country is considered. 



60 



Catalogue op Lectures Delivered in the Polytechnical 
School at Hanover. 



preparatory school. 



Low Mathematics, 

Theology and Botany, 
Mineralogy, 

Sketching, 

Outline, 



Grelle, 
Guthe, 



Hours. 

ho 



Miihlenpfardt, 

Guthe, 

Schulz, 

Blank, ^-15 

Kusler, 

Bruns, 4 



PRINCIPAL SCHOOL. 

High Mathematics, Grelle, 

( Slegemann, 



( Busing, 
Hunaus, 



Geometry, 

Practical Geometry, 

Mechanics, I course, Ritter, 

" H course, " 

Construction of machinery, Gr 
" I course, 
" II course, 

Theory of machinery, 

" I course, 

" II course, 

Architecture, I course 

Constructions and 

Material, 

Ornamental, Liier, 



Riihlmann, 



j Debo, 
1 Giier, 





Hours. 


Kohler, 


7 


Hase, 
Kohler, 


11 


Debo, 

Giier, 


\° 


Giier, 


3 


Hase, 


4 



Theory of Form and j 
Perspective, | 

To sketch buildings, - 

Delivery, i 

Ornamental, 
History of Architscture, 
Roads, Rail-Road j 

Constructions, j 

Water-works, 

Con. of Bridges, i 

Geognosy, 

Theoretical Physics, v. 
Practical Physics, 

Theoretical Chemistry, Heeren, 
Technical Chemistry, " 

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. 



v. Kaven, 

Trenting, 
Trenting, 
V. Kaven, 
Hunaus, 
Quintus Talius, 



Experimenting in the 
Laboratory, 

Analytic Chemistry, 
Mechanical 

Technology, 
Embossing works, 
Moulding works, 



■j Kraut, 

Kraut, 
j Karmarsch, 
j Hoyer, 

Engelhardt, 
Bruns, 



22 
3 

• 5 
5 
5 



Catalogue oe the Lectures to be Delivered in the Fre- 
derick William University at Berlin, from Oct. 15, 1868, 
till March 19, 1869. 



THEOLOGY. 

By Prof. Dr. Hengstenberg : Hours. 

The Introduction to the canonical 

books Old Testament, 5 

The Prophecies of Isaiah, 5 

The History of the Passion and Re- 
surrection of Christ according to 
the four Gospels 2 

By Prof. Gic. Vatke : 

The Introduction to the Old Testa- 
ment, 5 

The Origin of the Pentateuch, 1 

By Prof. Benary : 

Genesis, 5 

The Book of the Judges, 1 

By Gic. Kranichfeld : 

Genesis, 5 

The Book of Daniel, 2 

Homiletic Exercises, Exercises in the 
Arabian and Hebrew language, 

By Gic. Gerlach : 

The Psalms, 5 

Difficult Parts of the Old Testament 
explained in the Latin Language, 2 



By Prof. Dr. Rodiger : Hours. 

The Book of Job, 4 

Solomon's Song 1 

By Prof. Dr. Dieterici : 

The Lesser Prophets, 2 

By Prof. Gic. Strauss : 

Biblical Archeology, 2 

Homiletics, 1 

Homiletic Exercises, 1 

Catechetical Exercises, 1 

By Prof. Dr. Dorner : 

The Gospel of John, 5 

The Christian Symbolism, 5 

By Prof. Dr. Frommann : 

The Epistle to the Romans, 5 

The Homiletics, 3 

By Prof. Dr. Twesten: 

The Epistles to the Thessalonians, 
Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, 
Ephesians, 5 

The Principles of the Dogmatical 
Interpretations of the New Testa- 
ment, 1 

Christian Dogma, 6 



61 



By o Prof. Gic. Messner : Hours. 

Parts of the Revelations, 1 

The Biblical Theology of the New 
Testament, 5 

By Prof. Dr. Piper : 

The 2d part of the Church History, . . 5 
The Archaeological and Patristic Ex- 
ercises, 2 

By Prof. Gic. "Weingarten : 

The 2d part of the Church History, . . 5 
The History of the Keformation, 2 

By Prof. Dr. Semisch : 

The 3d part of the History of the 
Church, 6 

The Christian History of Dogma, ... 6 

By Gic. Preuss : 

The Apology of Christianity, 5 

A Disputation on the Augsburg Con- 
fession, 1 

By Prof. Dr. Steinmeyer : 

Practical Theology, 5 

, The Catechetics, 1 

Homiletic Advices, 1 

By Gic. Kxeinprt : 

Theological Disputations, 1 



JURISPRUDENCE. 

By Prof. Htdemann : 

Encyclopedia or Methodologia of 

Jurisprudence, 3 

The Prussian Common Law, 5 

Disputations on Prussian and French 

laws, 2 

The Code Napoleon, 3 

By Prof. Berner : 

Law by Nature, 4 

Laws of Nations (International Law), 3 
German law of Punishment (penal 

justice), 4 

Penalty Process, 2 

Criminal Psychology, 1 

By Prof. Michelet : 

Law by Nature in connection with 
Universal History of Law, 4 

By Prof. Rtjdorfp : 

Institutions and Antiquities of the 

Roman Law, 5 

History of the Roman State Law, ... 1 
By Dr. Schmidt : 

Encyclopedia or Methodologia of 

Jurisprudence, 

On the Pandects and International 

History of the Roman law, also Ex- 

egetic Exercises . , 6 

By Dr. Baron : 

Institutions and Antiquities of the 

Roman Law, 4 

History of the Roman State law, 4 

Dogmatical and Exegetical Exercises 

on the Roman law, 1 

The Prussian Common Law, 5 

By Dr. Begenkoll : 

Institutions and Antiquities of the 

Roman law, 5 

Practical exercises, 1 

By Dr. Eck : 

Institutions of the Roman law, 4 

History of the Roman State law, 4 

Selected Civil law Cases, 1 



By Dr. Rtck : Hours. 

Institutions of the Roman law, 4 

Law of inheritance, 2 

By Prof. Bruns : 

Practical law of pandects, 6 

Law of Inheritance, 3 

Selected Pandects, 1 

By Prof. Gneist : 

Law of Inheritance, 3 

History of {he English Constitution', 1 

Common and Prussian Civil Law, ... 4 

By Prof. Heepter : 

Canon Law, 4 

The Public Law of Prussia and other 
German States, 4 

By Dr. Htxbler : 

Canon Law, 2 

Canonical Civil Law, ? 

By Prof. Hometer : 

History of the German Empire and 
Law, 2 

By Prof. Kuhns : 

History of the German Empire and 
Law, 2 

German Law concerning Bills of Ex- 
change, 1 

Exercises of the German law, especi- 
ally of the Commercial Law, 1 

German Statute Law, 4 

By Dr. Lewis : 

History of the German Empire and 

Law, 4 

Definition of the Sachsenspiegel, ... 2 

By Dr. Gierke : 

History of the German Empire and 
Law, 2 

By Dr. Behrend : 

Definition of the Sachsenspiegel, ... 1 

German Statute Law, 5 

German Commei-cial Maritime and 

Exchange Law, 4 

On Exchange and Banking Business, 1 

By Prof. Beseler : 

German Statute law including the 
Feudal, Commercial, Exchange 
and Maritime Law, 5 

German Law, 1 

By Prof. V. Holtzendorpp : 

State Law, regarding' especially the 
Documents of the Prussian Consti- 
tution, 4 

Politic and Common State Law, 2 

Common German and Prussian 

Penal Justice, 4 

Penalty Process, 2 

On Death Penalty, 1 

By Prof. Hrsrscmus : 

Prussian Family Law 1 

MEDICAL SCIENCE. 

By Prof. Schtjxz Schtjbzenstein : 

Encyclopedia and Methodologia of 

the Medical Science, 2 

General Pathology and Therapeutics, 4 
Remedy Theory'; Essays of the Effect 

of Medicine on Animals, 6 

By Prof. Hirsch : 

General History of Medical Science, 3 
General Pathology and Therapeutics, 5 



62 



By Prof. Reichert : Hours. 

Anatomy, 6 

Anatomy of the Brain and Spinal 

Marrow, 1 

The Theoretical Histology, 1 

A Microscopical Anatomical Course, ? 
Dissections, 12 

By Prof. Hartmann : 

The Osteology and Syndesmology of 
Man, 2 

Anatomy of the Power of Senses, 1 

By Prof. Du Bois-Reymond : 

The 2d part of Physiology, 5 

Physiological Exercises in the Phy- 
siological Laboratory, assisted by 
Prof. Rosenthal, ? 

By Prof. Rosenthal ; 

The Experimental Part of Physio- 
logy, 2 

Theory of Electricity, 1 

By Dr. Mtjnk : 

Selected Chapters of Physiology, . . 4 
Physical and Physiological Base of 
the Electrotherapy, with experi- 
ments, 1 

By Dr. Hermann : 

About the Physiological Effects of 
Gas, with experiments, 1 

Medical Chemistry, with experi- 
ments, 2 

Physiological and Pathological 
Chemical Tasks, ? 

The Theory of Poison, 2 

By Dr. Siebreich : 

Chemistry of Digestion, 1 

Practical Medical Chemical Course, 
with experiments, 3 

By Prof. Virchow : 

General Pathology and Therapy, in- 
cluding General Pathological Ana- 
tomy, 4 

A Demonstrative Course of Patho- 
logy, Anatomy and Microscopy 
with advice to Pathological Sec- 
tions, 3 

Practical Courses of the whole Medi- 
cal Diagnosis, 

By Dr. Westphal : 

Percussion and Auscultation, with 

practical exercises, ? 

Laryngoscopic Course, ? 

By Prof. Lewxn : 

Syphilis, ? 

The Clinical Medicine of Syphilitic 
and Cutaneous Diseases, 3 

Laryngoscopy, with practical exer- 
cises, 1 

Auscultation, Percussion and Laryn- 
goscopy, with demonstrations, ? 

By Dr. Waldenburg : 

Laryngoscopy, with practical exer- 
cises, 1 

Practical Course on Auscultation, 
Percussion and Laryngoscopy,... 3 

By Dr. Eulenbtjrg : 

Demonstrations of Diseases of the 
Nerves, with practical exercises ; 

for three month3, 4 

Electrotherapy, 

By Prof. Griestnger : 

Clinical Medicine of the Diseases of 
Nerves and Mental Debilities, .... 5 



By Prof. Mitscherlich : Hours. 

The Theory of Remedy, 6 

On the Agitating Remedies, 2 

General, and Special Surgery with 

demonstrations, 

By Dr. Helet : 

On Medical Climatology, 1 

On the Use of Medical Springs for 
Chronic Diseases, 4 

By Dr. Valentiner : 

On the Medical Use of Mineral Water 

for Chronic Diseases, 2 

By Prof. Yungken : 

General and Special Surgery, . . 4 

On the Ruptures of the Human Body, 2 
By Dr. Fischer : 

General and Special Surgery, 4 

On Ruptures in the Abdomen and 

their Treatment, 2 

By Prof. V. Langenbeck : 

Chirurgery, with surgical anatomi- 
cal demonstrations, 3 

Surgical-Clinical-Medicine in the 
Royal Surgical University Clini- 

cum, 5 

By Dr. Ravoth : 

On Chiruryery, ? 

By Prof. Gurlt : 

Dissections, 6 

The Theory of Osteoceles and Dislo- 
cations, 2 

By Prof. V. Grape : 

The Eye — its Diseases and Reme- 
dies, 9 

By Prof. Bohm : 

Eyeglasses and their Medical Effects, 1 
By Dr. Erhard : 

Diseases of the Auditory Nerve in 
connection with demonstrations, 1 
By Dr. Lucae : 

On the Eye and Ear, with demon- 
strations and experiments, 1 

By Prof. Albrecht : 

Diseases of the Teeth and Mouth, . . 2 
By Prof. Martin : 

Gynaecology and Midwifery, 5 

Clinical and Policlinical Medicine in 
connection with Midwifery and 

Gynaecology, 6 

By Prof. Ebert : 

Policlinical and Clinical Medicines 
of Diseases of Children, 3 

MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 

By Prof. Liman : 

Dissections, ? 

By Prof. Skrzeczka : 

Dissections, ? 

Medical Jurisprudence, 6 

Selected Chapters of the Medical 
police, ; 2 

By Dr. Schultz : 

Medical Climatology, 2 

On the Climate of Italy, 1 

PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 
By Prof. Trendelenburg : 

General History of Philosophy, 5 

Psychology, 4 

Explanation of Aristotle's 2d Book 
of Physics, in the Philosophical 
Exercises, % 



63 



By Prof. Axthaus : Hours. 

General History of Philosophy, up 
to the 18th century, 4 

History of Philosophy from the be- 
ginning of the 18th century, 2 

Encyclopfedia of the Philosophical 
Sciences, including Logic, 4 

By Prof. Gruppe : 

History of Greek Philosophy, 2 

By Dr. Marker : 

Natural Philosophy of the Ancients, 
according to Aristotle's Physics, 4 

By Prof. Michelet : 

Logic and Encyclopfedia of the 
Philosophical Sciences, 4 

Philosophical Conservatory Disputa- 
tion, 1 

By Prof. Harms : 

Logic and Metaplrysics, 4 

Practical Philosopny, or Ethics, 4 

Philosophical Exercises, 1 

By Dr. Duhrtng : 

Logic, combined with a course of 
Philosophy, according to the prin- 
ciples of Natural Dialectics, 4 

Philosophical Privatissimis, 4 

By Prof. Werder : 

Psychology and Anthropology, 3 

By Prof. Steinthal : 

Philosophy of Language and Gene- 
ral Grammar, 4 

By Prof. Massmann : 

Pedagogical Questions, 2 

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 

By Prof. Kummee : 

Theory of Numbers, 4 

By Dr. Kronecker : 

Theory of Algebraic Algebra, 2 

By Prof. Weierstrass : 

Theory of the Elliptical Functions, 6 

By Prof. Euchs : 

Theory of the Differential and Inte- 
gral Calculus, 4 

By Dr. Hoppe : 

Integral Calculus, 4 

Analytic Geometry, 4 

By Prof. Ohm : 

Analytic Mechanics, 3 

By Prof. Fokster ; 

Selected chapters, Astronomical Me- 
chanics, 4 

The History of Astronomy, 2 

By Dr. Atjwers : 

The Double Stars, 2 

THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 

By Prof. Poggendorf : 

General History of Physics ; from 
Galileo to the present time, 2 

By Prof. Magnus : 

Physics with Essays, 5 

Practical Physical Exercises, ? 

Physical Colloquia, ? 

By Prof. Dove : 

Experimental Physics, 2 

Meteorology, 2 



By Prof. Erman : Hours. 

Physics of the Earth ; or the Theory 
of the Geogiaphical and Cosmo- 
graphical Phenomenon, 3 

Theoretical and Practical Advices 
regarding Scientific and Physical 
Observations, ? 

By Prof. Guincke : 

Theory of Electricity, 4 

Optics, 2 

By Dr. Paat.zow : 

Mechanical Theory of Warmness, ... 1 

By Dr. Oppenheim : 

The History of Chemistry of our Age, 2 
Organic Chemistry, 3 

By Dr. Sonnenschein : 

The History of Chemistry, 1 

Judicial Chemistry, with Essays, 2 

Practical Chemical Tasks, 6 

Chemical Colloquia, ? 

By Dr. Remele : 

History of Analytic Chemistry, 1 

The Quantitative Parts of Analytic 

Chemistry, with experiments, 3 

Chemical Mineralogy, 3 

By Prof. Hofmann : 

Experimental Chemistry, 3 

Introduction to Analytic Chemistry, 1 

Chemical Experimental Exercises,. . 6 

By Dr. Wichelhaus : 

Organic Chemistry, 4 

Scientific Chemical Kesearcb.es, 6 

By Prof. Schneider : 

Organic Chemistry, especially for 

Medicine and Pharmacy, 5 

Organic Bases, 1 

Inorganic Pharmacy, 3 

Practical Chemical Exercises, 6 

Summary of Zoology, 3 

Natural History of Tape-worms of 

Man, 5 

A Zoological Course directed by him 

By Prof. Baeter : 

The 2d part of Organic Chemistry, 
with experiments, 4 

Practical Exercises on Organic Che- 
mistry, 6 

By Prof. Eammelsberg : 

The 1st part of Special Inorganic 

Chemistry,..' 4 

The Chemical Principles of Metal- 
lurgy, 3 

By Prof. Rose : 

Mineralogy, 6 

Crystallography, 1 

By Prof. Betnch : 

Petrifications, 4 

Geogmosv with regard to Mountains 
formed in Horizontal Layers, 2 

By Prof. Roth : 

Geology, 2 

Volcanoes, 1 

By Dr. Laspetres : 

General Petrography, 4 

By Prof. Bra un : 

General Botany, regarding especially 

Medical and Economical Plmts, . . 5 
Exercises to determine Cryptogami- 

cal Plants, ? 

Botanical Conservatory, ? 



64 



By Prof. Kaesten: Hours. 

Medical Botany showing Medical 

Plants and Drugs, 6 

Pharmacognosy, 4 

Anatomical Physical Exercises, ? 

By Dr. Knt : 

Fructification of Plants, 2 

Anatomical and Physical Exercises, 5 

By Prof. Petebs : 

General and Special Zoology, 6 

Zoological Zootomic Exercises, 2 

By Dr. Gebstacker : 

General and Special Entomology 
with Microscopical Demonstra- 
tions, 3 

By Prof, dtj Bois Reymond : 

Physical Anthropology, 1 



SCIENCES OF STATE FINANCE AND 
INDUSTRY. 

By Prof. Hanssen : 

People's Political Economy, 4 

Science of Finances, 4 

Financial Exercises, 1 

By Prof. Feiedlaendeb : 

National Economy, 4 

By Dr. Duhking : 

National Economy acording to Prin- 
ciples of Critical Foundation, 4 

Parties in the State and Society, 1 

Political Eonomy, 

Prussian Finances, Police and Ad- 
ministration, 

By Prof. Helwing : 

Police Science or Theory of intrin- "1 
sic Administration, also Theory ] 
of State Economy, j- 4 

Agricultural, Industrious and Com- | 
mercial Police. J 

Examinations and Disputations on 
the Science of Politics and Finan- 
ces, ? 

By Dr. Schuiz : 

Police, 2 

By Prof. Thaee: 

Principles of Agricultural Credit and 

Insurance, 1 

Agricultural Production of Animals, 4 
Colloquia on Selected Parts of the 
Practical Management of Agricul- 
ture, 1 

By Prof. Koch : 

Agricultural Botany, with demons- 
trations on living planes, 2 

By Dr. Geestackee : 

Insects Pernicious and Useful to 
Agriculture, 2 

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY. 

By Prof. V. Raumek : 

History of Constitutions and Politics, 1 

By Prof. Kopke : 

History of the Middle Ages, 4 

Historical Exercises, 1 

By Dr. EEDMAmstsDOErEEE : 

History from the end of the Middle 
Ages with regard to Literature 

and Civilization, , 4 

History of the English Revolution, 2 



By Prof. -V. Ranke : Hours. 
History of the Present Age, since 
the Declaration of Independence 
of the United States of America, 4 
Historical Exercises, ? 

By Prof. Deotsen : 

History since 1815, 5 

Greek Histor f, 4 

Exercises of the. Historical Society, ? 

By Dr. Hassel : 

History of Prussia from 1784-1815, 1 
By Prof. Tajpfe : 

Historical Exercises, 1 

By Prof. Kiepeet : 

History of the Earth and Geographi- 
cal Discoveries, 3 

By Dr. Bastian : 

History of Colonies from the 15th 
Century till the present time, 1 

Ethnology and Anthropology, 4 

By Prof. Mulleb : 

Geography and Knowledge of Dif- 
ferent States of the New World, 4 
The History of the New World, 1 

THEORY AND HISTORY OF ART. 
By Prof. Hotho : 

^Esthetics, with a Summary on His- 
tory of Art, 2 

By Prof. Weedee : 

On Dramatic Art, 1 

By Dr. Maeeckee : 

Rhetoric, 1 

Rhetorical Exercises, 1 

By Prof. Cuetis : 

History of Plastic Arts of the Greeks, 

and Romans, ' 5 

Exercises of Classical Archaeology 

and Monuments, ? 

By Prof. Feiedeeiohs : 

History of Greek- Roman Art, 

Archaeological Exercises, 1 

By Prof. Lepsius : 

Egyptian Monuments, 1 

By Prof. Belleemann : 

History of Music of the middle ages, 
from beginning of Christianity till 
Franco of Cologne, 13th century, . . 2 
Counterpoint Exercises, 2 

PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND EX- 
PLANATION OF AUTHORS. 
By Prof. Steinthal : 

The style of the Indo-Germanic Lan- 
guage, with regard to the Greek, 

Latin and German Language, 4 

History of the Science of the Lan- 
guages of the Greeks and Romans, 1 

By Prof. Massmann : 

Science of Handwriting, ? 

Explains the Germania of Tacitus,. 4 

Monuments regarding the Gothic 
Languages, combined with the 
History of the Gothic Language, 4 
By Prof. Kiechhoep : 

History of Greek Literature till time 
of Alexander the Great, 4 

Explains Medea of Euripides, 4 

By Prof. Hatjpt : 

Explains the Birds of Aristophanes, 4 
Explains the Eunuchus of Terentius, 4 



65 



By Prof. Mullach : Hours. 

Explains Thucydides in the Latin 

Language, 1 

Explains Cicero De Oratione, 4 

By Prof. Hubneb ; 

The Funeral Oration of Pericles over 

Thucydides, 1 

Histo.y of Roman Literature, 4 

On Eoman Private Antiquities, with 
the Help of Monuments of Art, ... 3 
By Prof. Bekkeb : 

Oration of Isocrates, 2 

By Dr. Bonitz : 

On the Life and Literary Works of 
Plato, with the explanation of 

the Dialogue, Theaetel, 2 

By Prof. Geppeet: 

Eoman Antiquities, 4 

The Casina of Plautus, g 

By Prof. Taffe: 

Latin Paleography, 3 

By Dr. Maekkee : 

Lucrez's books, Treating the Things 
of Nature, 1 

By Prof. Memmsek : 

Selected Parts of Gaius's Institu- 
tions, 1 

By Prof. Mullenhoff : 

The Nibelunge Noth, 4 

The Songs of the Old Edda, 4 

The German Exercises to be con- 
tinued, 1 

By Prof. Toblee : 

French Grammar,, 4 

On the Novelas Ejemplares of Cer- 
vantes, 2 

Exercises of his Romanian Society, 1 
By Lee. Fabbbucci : 

History of Italian Literature in the 

Italian Language, 3 

Italian Language, 2 

Offers an Italian and French course, 
Privatissimis 

Bj Lee. Solly : 

History of English Literature from 
15th century, in the English Lan- 
guage, 1 

Offers a Privatissimis in the English 
Language 

By Prof. Webee : 

Sanskrit Grammar, 3 

Explains Bhavabhutis Malatimad- 

hava, .' 2 

Hymns of Rigveda or Atharvaveda, 3 

Zend, or Pali Grammar, 2 

Offers Privatissimis in Sanskrit, 

Pali or Zend 



By Dr. Tohaentgen ; Hours. 

The Grammatical Sutra of Ptaini, . . 2 

By Dr. Haabbettckeb ; 

The Syrian Language, 2 

The Arabian Language, 3 

By Prof. Rodigeb : 

Solomon's Song, 1 

The Book of Job, 4 

The Koran and other Arabian tenets, 
also the Arabian Syntax, 3 

Offers Privatissimis for the Hebrew, 
Arabian or Ethiopian language. . . 

By Prof. Dieteeici : 

Grammar of the Arabian language, 3 
Explains some Arabian Authors, 1 

By Lie. Dr. Keanichfeld : 

Grammar of the Arabian language, 
with practical exercises, 2 

By Dr. Wetzstein : 

On the Idiom of the Zeltaraber, 1 

On the Lyric Poetry of the Arabians, 2 

By Prof. Benakt : 

The Hebrew language and the other 
similar Dialects, Privatissimis 

By Prof. Lepshts : 

Egyptian Grammar, 3 

By Dr. Pieteaszewski : 

The Persian Grammar, and Zend 
Language, also the Polish and 
Russian Language, 2 

The Turkish Grammar with Trans- 
lation of Kirk Wezir, 2 

Offers Privatissimis in the Persian 
and Turkish Language 

By Prof. Schott : 

On the Literature of People of Fin- 
land Descent, , . 2 

The Finland (Suomi) Language, 2 

The Chinese Language, 2 

By Lee. Michaelis : 

German Stenography, with Practical 

Exercises 2 

Practical Stenographical Exercises, 1 
Offers Privatissimis in the German, 

English and French Stenography. . 
On the Principles of the German 

Orthography, 1 

GYMNASTICS. 

Mr. Neumann teaches Fencing. 
Mr. Feeising " Dancing. 

Mr. Hlldebeandt " Riding horseback. 



Public Institutions. 



To the Royal Library, and University Li- 
brary, every student is admitted. The 
Observatory, the Botanic Garden, An- 
atomical Zoolomical and Zoological 
Museum, the Herbarium, the Mineral 
Department, the Collection of Surgical 
Instruments and Bandages, the Physi- 
cal Apparatus, the Pharmacological 

9 



Collection, the Collection of Charts of 
the Royal Chartographic Institution, 
the Christian Archaeological Collection 
of the University, the Museum of Arts, 
the Collection of Plaster Casts, the 
Archaeological Collection of the Univer- 
sity, can be used during the course. 



66 



The Exegetical Exercises of the Theologi- 
cal Seminary, regarding the New Tes- 
tament, will be directed by Prof. Dr- 
Tweston ; those of the Old Testament 
by Prof. Dr. Hengstenberg ; those of 
the History of the Church and Dogmas 
by Prof. Dr. Semish. The following 
Institutions are for the study of Medi- 
cine and Surgery. 

The Anatomical Theatre and Physiological 
Laboratory, the Medical, Surgical Pol- 
clinical Institution, the Clinicum for 
Surgery and Medical Science for Eyes, 
the Clinicum of the University, for 
Midwifery, the Policlinic for Midwifery, 
the Clinical Department of the Charite" 
Hospital,as the Operation Cliniucm for 
Surgery, the Clinicum for Medical 
Science for Eyes, and [Perfection of 
Oculists, the Clinicum for Syphilitic 
Patients, Psychiatric Clinicum and the 



Clinicum for the Disease of the Nerves, 
the Clinicum for Midwifery and Treat- 
ment of Women lying-in, and New-born 
Children, the Pathological Institution 
in the Charite, and the Department for 
Practical Exercises of Judicial Medi- 
cine, in the Anatomical building. 

In the Philosophical Seminary under the 
direction of Prof. Hatjpt, the Dialogue 
of Tacitus will be explained every 
Wednesday. 

The Orations of Lysias will be explained 
under the direction of Prof. Kerch 
hopf, every Saturday. 

The Disputation Exercises will be di- 
rected also by Prof. Kxechhoff. 

The Exercises of the Mathematical Semi- 
nary will be directed by Prof. Kummer- 
and Prof. Weeerstrass. 



